Bipolar world and new tensions - the origins of the Cold War

The consequences of World War II were very heavy, constituting an unprecedented catastrophe. The necessity to rebuild from the ruins gave rise to a new world, which new institutions must secure. There was a consensus among countries on the need for new international institutions. The dominance of two superpowers led to a bipolar logic. The Cold War was characterised by an ideological and political conflict, without direct confrontation between the USA and the USSR. The construction of a new world from the ruins of war, with new economic and political institutions, was imperative. A summary of the early Cold War and other tensions underscores the complexities of the era.

#1. A new world seeking a new political balance

#A. Emergence of new states

The revival of states annexed by the Axis during the war prompted a quest for a fresh balance, leading to their reorganisation. Examples include Japan, Korea, states of Eastern Europe, and the foundation of People's Republic of China in 1949 (PRC).

Korea was divided into North and South, while Germany was initially divided into four zones, later consolidating into two (bizonia). Superpowers played a significant role in influencing this restructuring, extending their influence to the establishment of new regimes. Stalin regarded this influence as natural in what he called a 'new type of war.'

#B. Independence movements in the colonies

As European states weakened, demands for independence emerged in the colonies. Examples from 1945 include demonstrations in Sétif, Guelma, and Kherrata in Algeria, where such demands were met with violent repression by the French army.

In Indochina, Ho Chi Minh declared Vietnam's independence, leading to war with France in 1946 and later the Vietnam War with direct US involvement. Some countries achieved independence peacefully, such as India separating from the British Empire in 1947 through non-violent method.

#C. The UN: a new peace organisation

The idea of the UN emerged during early meetings between Roosevelt and Churchill at the start of the war, and was established in 1945 in San Francisco.

In its decision-making process, the General Assembly was empowered to decide without unanimous agreement, allowing for resolution in case of minority dissent, with a simple majority being sufficient for decision-making.

The structure of the Security Council includes elected members and permanent members, reflecting new geopolitical realities, with permanent members having veto power to block resolutions if deemed necessary.

The five permanent members were the United States, United Kingdom, USSR (now Russia), China, and France.

#2. Cold War and new tensions

#A. The origins of the Cold War

#a) An antagonism from 1917

The roots of the United States' mistrust of the USSR can be traced back to the 1917 Revolution. This mistrust was also quite widespread in Europe. The legitimacy of this new state was not immediately recognised.

It wasn't until the 1930s that genuine diplomatic relations, beyond commercial interests, were established with Moscow. In response, Stalin also had grown his own distrust towards capitalist states, which, according to him, sought to encircle the USSR.

#b) Progressive deterioration of the Grand Alliance

The end of the Nazi-Soviet Pact occurred when the Nazis invaded the USSR on June 22 1941, leading the USSR to join the Grand Alliance against the Axis powers.

Despite the alliance, suspicion, and events during the wartime conferences contributed to the gradual erosion of trust.

Changes in leadership occurred with FDR's death (Franklin Delano Roosevelt) and replacement by Harry Truman, who held more anti-communist views. Churchill was replaced by Atlee during the Potsdam Conference in July 1945. This change of protagonists led to even more miscommunication.

Disagreements over the fate of Poland exacerbated tensions. Truman thought that revealing the existence of the atomic bomb would signal US superiority. However, Stalin was already aware of the implications of the Manhattan Project.

#c) Opposition among superpowers

The issue of Japan's surrender underscored the opposition between superpowers. The conclusion of the war in Asia had ramifications on the spheres of influence of the two superpowers.

From the American perspective, there was a belief that the USSR should not be involved to prevent its expansion. The decision was made to refrain from landing troops due to time constraints. Instead, the option of bombing was chosen to induce a swift surrender. The use of nuclear bombings achieved the intended effect.

#d) Incompatibility of ideologies and systems

In the USA, there was a representative democracy with free elections and a diverse party landscape fostering genuine political debate. In contrast, the USSR operated under a totalitarian system with single-party rule, restricted elections, and the suppression of political opponents. In the USA, individuals enjoyed freedom of speech, press, and religion. Conversely, the USSR exercised media control and censored critical opinions while discouraging religious practice.

The USA advocated for free trade and the pursuit of profit within a capitalist framework. Meanwhile, the USSR maintained a centralised economy with the abolition of private property and the collectivisation of means of production.

These fundamental differences resulted in a complete incompatibility between the two superpowers, representing diametrically opposed worlds. Consequently, communication between them was understandably very difficult.

#B. Early crises of the Cold War

#a) Strategies and doctrines

In early 1946, Kennan's Long Telegram, dispatched from Moscow, outlined the threat posed by Soviet expansionism, introducing the concept of 'containment.' Also in 1946, Churchill's speech in Fulton referenced an 'Iron Curtain' descending across Europe.

In March 1947, the Truman Doctrine identified communism as an evil force that needed containment. This speech is often seen as the official start of the Cold War. The Soviet response criticised American imperialism, and their formal doctrine, the Zhdanov Doctrine, consolidated the idea of a global revolution.

#b) Prague Coup

Soviet control over Eastern Europe led to the gradual ascent of communist leaders, who were either elected or imposed by force.

In Czechoslovakia, elections were held in February 1948, resulting in significant gains for the communists. This political shift triggered a crisis, leading to the resignation of all non-communist ministers, and even President Beneš himself. Ultimately, power was transferred to the Stalinist faction.

#c) The Berlin blockade

The Berlin Blockade marked a pivotal moment in the ideological war unfolding in Europe. West Berlin, under the control of the United States, France, and Britain, found itself encircled by East Germany, under Soviet rule, making it an enclave within Soviet-controlled territory.

In June 1948, Stalin ordered the closure of East Germany's borders, effectively isolating West Berlin by cutting off its roads, railways, and waterways, making resupply impossible. Faced with the prospect of a forced entry into East Germany by American soldiers to end the blockade, which risked triggering a full-scale war, an airlift was initiated to sustain West Berlin. The Soviets considered shooting down incoming planes, further escalating tensions and the risk of conflict.

Despite the absence of a formal resolution, the blockade was lifted a few months later in 1949 after a tense standoff, averting direct confrontation but leaving lasting geopolitical implications.

#d) Korean War

The Korean War erupted after North Korea invaded South Korea in 1950. This followed Korea's division into North and South after World War II, with North Korea adopting communism under Soviet influence, while South Korea aligned with the USA.

Taking advantage of the USSR's absence in the UN Security Council, President Truman secured a resolution for international intervention. The majority of UN forces, comprising 88% American soldiers, successfully repelled North Korean forces. However, the conflict escalated when the US-UN forces advanced towards the Chinese border, prompting General MacArthur to advocate for further action into China.

Subsequently, 1.7 million Chinese volunteers intervened, compelling US-UN forces to retreat, marking a significant victory for Mao Zedong. The conflict ultimately settled with the border reverting to the 38th parallel, in fact the pre-conflict boundary.

Despite a non-aggression pact signed in 1953 under Eisenhower's leadership, officially ending the war, no peace treaty was established.