The Mediterranean region in the Middle Ages

The Mediterranean is a relatively small and almost enclosed space. These two characteristics facilitated exchanges between the various civilisations that surround it.

A centre of numerous ancient civilisations (Egyptians, Hebrews, Greeks, Romans), it also bears witness to the evolution of relations between three great medieval civilisations:

  • the Western Christians centred around Rome,
  • the Eastern Christians centred around Constantinople,
  • and, in its southern and south-western parts, a third civilisation, Islam, which is a political, cultural, and religious entity fundamentally distinct from the other two.

The relationships between these three civilisations were numerous, alternating between economic or cultural exchanges and conflicts. This study explores the Mediterranean as a junction of these three worlds. It focuses on the interactions between these civilisations, both the peaceful exchanges and the conflicts.

#1. The Mediterranean: a meeting of three civilisations

#A. The expansion of the Christian West

#a) Economic growth of the West

The favourable climate between around 900 and 1300 led to abundant harvests and a reduction in famines. It is estimated that the European population doubled between 1050 and 1250. Agricultural advancements improved rural productivity, benefiting not only the countryside but also the towns.

Crafts and trade flourished, and towns became lively centres of activity. Fairs, such as those in Champagne, connected merchants and goods from across Europe.

The urban population also grew, and wealthy merchants seized urban power within the framework of communes.

#b) A religious unity and control fostering growth

The West was politically fragmented into many kingdoms, without political unity. In the 12th century, Western kings gradually imposed their authority over larger territories, but power largely remained in the hands of local lords who organised feudal society. The Roman Church was the only institution that ensured unity in this politically divided space.

Pope Gregory VII (1073–1085) pursued significant moral reforms, impacting both religious officials (with priestly concubinage banned) and the normal people.

From the early 11th century, knights were required to swear before the Church to use violence in a controlled and moderate way: this was the Peace of God, which prohibited attacks on vulnerable individuals (women, peasants, priests), and the Truce of God, which imposed restrictions on violence, declaring that “neither man nor woman shall attack another, nor shall they assault a castle or village, from Wednesday at sunset to Monday at dawn.”

The Church had made efforts to assert itself as the regulator of social relations in a world where public authority was still weak. The Church sought to channel and substitute unchecked violence with the chivalric ideal, discouraging unnecessary brutality. To achieve this, the Church wielded a formidable tool: the promise of paradise, and its counterpart, the threat of hell.

The manifestations of Christian renewal did not stop there: the construction of churches in even the smallest villages, imposing cathedrals in towns (Romanesque architecture in the 12th century), and the popularity of major pilgrimages were clear signs of the renewed influence of the clergy and the intensity of faith.

The Church exercised comprehensive control over both the territory and the individual lives of Catholics. Geographically, the entire landscape was divided into dioceses and parishes, ensuring that no area was beyond its reach.

On a personal level, the Church marked and regulated each stage of life, from birth to death. Life was punctuated by key sacraments (baptism at birth, marriage in adulthood, and last rites at the end of life). Even after death, burial in consecrated ground reflected the Church's enduring influence. The rhythm of the year was shaped by religious festivals, the week by Sunday observance, and the day by the ringing of bells marking the hours.

In contrast, non-Catholics, such as Jews and heretics, were often subjected to recurring crises and persecution.

#B. The difficulties of the Byzantine Empire

#a) A theocracy

The Byzantine Empire, the eastern continuation of the Roman Empire, is a theocracy, from the Greek theos (God) and kratos (power), meaning that power is either exercised by religious figures or by a ruler considered to be God's representative on earth.

Religious law and civil law thus tend to become intertwined. The emperor (basileus) holds all power. Claiming to be God's representative among men, he is endowed with immense authority. For instance, when a foreign ambassador visits him, they must bow several times before the basileus and can only address him through an intermediary. An atmosphere of mystery (his throne rises by means of machinery) and impressive luxury surrounded him.

#b) Orthodox christianity

Closely tied to its prestige, inseparable from the imperial figure, and its traditions, the Byzantine Church regarded the evolution of the Western Church with suspicion and was reluctant to submit to the authority of the Pope.

Furthermore, its autonomous development has allowed it to structure itself around its own practices and foundations, such as the veneration of icons: iconoduly (one must show respectful reverence to icons by kissing them, performing prostrations, and offering incense and lights to them, as the honour given to the image is directed to its original model).

After many crises, the split between the two branches of Christianity became official with the Great Schism of 1054. However, although the Pope and the Patriarch excommunicated each other, they maintained relations.

#c) Comparison with the Latin Church

Aspect Western Christianity: Latin Church Eastern Christianity: Orthodoxy
Liturgical language Ceremonies were conducted in Latin. Ceremonies were conducted in Greek.
Place of worship Church in the Latin cross form: unequal-length cross arms. Church in the Greek cross form: four equal-length cross arms.
Clergy The Pope, as the Bishop of Rome, led the Church. All clergy members were celibate. The Patriarch of Constantinople led the Orthodox Church. Priests may marry.
Relationship with political authority The Pope sought to assert his supremacy over political power. The Byzantine Empire was a theocracy: the Emperor’s supremacy (who appointed the Patriarch of Constantinople) was indisputable.
Sacred images Images were present but only illustrative and not worshipped. Veneration of icons.

#e) Instability of the Empire

Constantinople, a vital crossroads between East and West, stirred envy due to its strategic position for trade. Despite the splendour of its capital's monuments and the emperor's authority, the Byzantine world faced significant challenges: the population declined (Great Plague of 1053-1054, low agricultural yields), factionalism weakened central authority, and internal religious conflicts like iconoclasm caused further divisions. These issues compounded the pressures of ongoing military defeats. Unable to withstand a new Turkish assault, Emperor Alexios Komnenos had to sacrifice his prestige by asking for the help of Western knights in 1095, a request that hastened the onset of the Crusades.

In the 12th century, the Komnenos dynasty attempted to consolidate the empire, weakened by succession crises, attacks from the Normans who had already invaded Sicily and parts of southern Italy, and Turkish invasions (defeat at Manzikert in 1071). The Byzantine Empire secured an alliance with Venice, which, in exchange for military and naval support, gained significant privileges in the empire’s ports and its capital.

Dynastic quarrels, factional struggles, and the growing instability of Constantinople, which threatened trade, eventually led the Venetians to intervene. They leveraged the troops of the Fourth Crusade, and as payment for passage on Venetian ships, the Franks launched an assault on the city. On 12 April 1204, the Crusader force seized control of Constantinople. After looting and sacking it, they massacred the Orthodox Christian population for three days. The weakened city fell under Venetian control. Retaken by the Greeks in 1261, it ultimately failed to withstand the Turkish assault in 1453, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire.

#C. Islam: a fragmented world

#a) Political and religious divisions

Born in the 7th century in Arabia, this monotheism was revealed to the Prophet Muhammad (570–632) and spread through conquest wars led by the caliphs in the name of Jihad.

After a rapid territorial expansion stretching from the Atlantic to the Indus, Islam encountered a profound crisis. The dispute centred on the attribution of the caliphate, a crucial theocratic office, holding supreme authority in both political and religious matters.

Two interpretations arose immediately after the Prophet’s death in 632:

  • Shia Islam, which holds that the caliphate belongs to the descendants of Ali, Muhammad’s son-in-law, believing them to be divinely guided and uniquely qualified to lead.
  • Sunni Islam, which considers that this same caliphal authority should be exercised by one of Muhammad’s close companions, Abu Bakr, whose appointment was seen as a practical choice by those closest to the Prophet.

Adding to these divisions are theological differences: while the primary source is the same, the Quran, the only sacred book, Sunnis also rely on the Sunna (the tradition), transmitted notably through the hadiths, a collection of the Prophet’s oral statements, reports, and prohibitions, as recounted by his companions. Although Shiites also have hadiths, they are fewer in number and often differ in content. For instance, the prohibition against depicting Muhammad is not present in Shia Islam.

#b) A fragmented territory

In addition to this religious schism, since the 10th century, the Muslim world had fractured into rival caliphates: the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad, the Almoravid Caliphate (succeeded by the Almohads in 1147) in southern Spain and the Maghreb, and the Fatimid Caliphate in Cairo.

The empire is thus weakened. Only the Arabic language served to maintain a semblance of unity.

#2. The Mediterranean, a space for peaceful exchange

#A. Trade

In the Mediterranean world, Arab sailors and caravan merchants hold a prominent place due to their geographical position and mastery of navigation tools, such as the compass. The famous “Silk Road” symbolised this dynamism, originating from Muslim trading posts established in India and China.

However, this activity also benefited the West and Byzantium. At the end of the 11th century, the Byzantine emperors granted commercial advantages to certain Italian cities. Venice, Genoa, and Pisa received permission to set up trading posts in Byzantine cities in exchange for their military assistance.

The architecture of these cities reflected their financial power and influence, as seen in Pisa's renowned ensemble (the Square of Miracles, the cathedral, and the bell tower) or in Venetian architecture.

#B. Cultural syncretism

Sicily, a Christian kingdom, became a melting pot of cultural exchanges, especially under the rule of Roger II (1130–1154), a descendant of the Normans who conquered the island in the previous century. He granted Muslims the freedom to use mosques and permited the call to prayer five times a day.

Sicily's administration, where Arabic was one of the official languages, also integrated elements from three different cultures. King William II himself speaks and writes in Arabic. Some churches reflected this cultural syncretism on the island, built in the Roman plan, covered with a dome following Byzantine tradition, and decorated in part with Arabic woodwork, Norman arches, and Byzantine mosaics.

In Palermo, at the request of King Roger II, the Arab geographer Al-Idrisi (1100–1165) created a planisphere and an atlas of the known world, with his commentary called The Book of Roger. He drew on the geography of the Greek Ptolemy, the works of Muslim geographers, and his own travels.

Spain was marked by a violent and prolonged Reconquista. Nevertheless, it also became a place where various influences blended. In Toledo, where synagogues, churches, and mosques coexisted, ancient science was rediscovered under Muslim influence. The texts of Aristotle were translated there, alongside the propagation of writings by the great Muslim physician Avicenna.

However, the Almohad conquest, which replaced the Almoravids in 1147, brought an end to this golden age. Forced conversions for Christians and Jews, the rejection of Greek and Roman antiquity, and the banning of philosophy drove several scholars, accused of heresy, to flee. As conditions worsened for Christians in southern Spain, tolerance toward Muslims in the north of the peninsula also declined.

#3. The Mediterranean, a place of conflict

#A. The Spanish Reconquista

Chronologically, the first of these military theatres was Spain, where, starting in the 11th century, the Christian kingdoms of the north embarked on the Reconquista of Muslim-held lands.

Although the Iberian Peninsula had been almost entirely Muslim since the 8th century, by the 12th century it was divided into two parts: in the north, the Christian kingdoms, and in the south, Al-Andalus, the territories under Muslim rule, where Jewish and Christian communities, known as Mozarabs, also lived. These Mozarabs were Christians who retained their faith while adopting Islamic customs and lifestyles.

As medieval Spain lacked political unity, the driving force behind its struggle was religious in nature: Christianity was the primary vector of medieval Iberian identity in opposition to Islam.

Although the Reconquista was a long and challenging endeavour, it reached a decisive turning point in 1212. With their victory at Las Navas de Tolosa, the Christians captured a large part of the peninsula, confining the Muslims to Andalusia, where they remained until 1492.

#B. The Crusades

#a) Urban II’s call to arms

Responding to the call of Byzantine Emperor Alexios Komnenos, overwhelmed by the Turkish invasion, Pope Urban II, from Clermont in 1095, exhorted Western Christians to “bring swift aid to their Eastern brothers, as promised so many times and now urgently needed.”

Urban II promised divine reward to the fighters: “If those who go there lose their lives (…), their sins shall be forgiven in that hour.”

However, the pope did not invite Christians to a war of conquest but rather to an act of solidarity towards their “Eastern brothers,” the Byzantine Orthodox Christians.

In addition, two other motives were present: with this call, the pope first assumed the role of unifying sovereign within a divided continent, he became an effective temporal actor. Moreover, the Crusade was especially useful as it provided an opportunity to rid the West of the knights who generated disorder. The Church, in particular through the Peace of God and Truce of God movements, which aimed to limit violence, had sought a religiously based moralisation of public conduct.

#b) Military operations

The First Crusade mes with great success, led by bishops and several popular preachers, such as Peter the Hermit. Thousands of crusaders gathered, some seeking paradise, others adventure, and many driven by the desire to liberate Jerusalem from Muslim rule. The Holy City falls to the Christians in 1099, and the crusaders established four “Christian states in the East”: Jerusalem, Antioch, Edessa, and Tripoli.

This Christian enclave in Muslim lands was nonetheless weakened by its low population, making it a constant target of Muslim assaults. Under the leadership of Saladin (1147–1193), Jerusalem was recaptured in 1187.

All subsequent crusades aimed at restoring the situation fail. During the eighth and final crusade, French King Louis IX succumbed to illness before even reaching the Holy Land on 25 August 1270. The Christians were definitively expelled from the lands of the East in 1291.

#Conclusion

Both a bridge for peaceful exchange and a battleground for conflict among civilisations, this dual role was rooted in the region’s unique geographical features, which facilitated interaction among diverse cultures yet also fostered competition and conflict.

Economic prosperity, trade, and cultural syncretism flourished in periods of peace, allowing diverse civilisations, Christian, Muslim, and Jewish, to coexist, collaborate, and influence one another. Trade routes like the Silk Road, maritime connections, and political alliances enabled a vibrant exchange of goods, knowledge, and ideas across borders. Sicily under Roger II, Toledo as a centre of learning, and the Byzantine commercial arrangements with Italian cities illustrated the positive outcomes of these peaceful interactions.

However, these periods of cooperation were often disrupted by underlying religious and political tensions, leading to violent conflicts. The Reconquista in Spain and the Crusades in the Levant showcased the complex and often confrontational relationship between civilisations striving for dominance. As each power sought to affirm its identity and control, these conflicts reshaped the Mediterranean, sometimes leading to enduring divisions, such as the Great Schism of 1054 between the Eastern and Western Christian churches.

Aspect Peaceful exchanges Violent conflicts
Economic Trade routes (e.g., Silk Road) enabled extensive commerce, connecting the east and west. Competition for trade routes led to territorial conflicts, such as between Byzantium and Italian cities.
Political Alliances like the Byzantine-Venetian pact fostered stability through mutual benefits. The Reconquista and Crusades initiated prolonged conflicts over religious and territorial control.
Cultural Cultural syncretism in regions like Sicily and Toledo allowed Christian, Muslim, and Jewish ideas to coexist. The rise of the Almohads in Spain disrupted tolerance, enforcing conversion and expelling scholars.
Religious Shared interest in holy sites and pilgrimages promoted limited interfaith tolerance. Religious differences, exemplified by the Great Schism, deepened divisions between eastern and western Christianity.
Impact of foreign powers The presence of different empires (Byzantine, Islamic Caliphates) supported cross-cultural interactions. Territorial expansion by empires and religious crusades turned the Mediterranean into a field of conquest.