The Mediterranean region in the Middle Ages

The Mediterranean is a relatively small and almost enclosed space. These two characteristics facilitate exchanges between the various civilisations that surround it.

A centre of numerous ancient civilisations (Egyptians, Hebrews, Greeks, Romans), it also bears witness to the evolution of relations between three great medieval civilisations:

• the Western Christians centred around Rome,
• the Eastern Christians centred around Constantinople,
• and, in its southern and south-western parts, a third civilisation, Islam, which is a political, cultural, and religious entity fundamentally distinct from the other two.

The relationships between these three civilisations are numerous, alternating between economic or cultural exchanges and conflicts. This study explores the Mediterranean as a junction of these three worlds. It focuses on the interactions between these civilisations, both the peaceful exchanges and the conflicts.

#1. The Mediterranean: a meeting of three civilisations

#A. The expansion of the Christian West

#a) Economic growth of the West

The favourable climate between around 900 and 1300 led to abundant harvests and a reduction in famines. It is estimated that the European population doubled between 1050 and 1250. Agricultural advancements improved rural productivity, benefiting not only the countryside but also the towns.

Crafts and trade flourished, and towns became lively centres of activity. Fairs, such as those in Champagne, connected merchants and goods from across Europe.

The urban population also grew, and wealthy merchants seized urban power within the framework of communes.

#b) A religious unity and control fostering growth

The West was politically fragmented into many kingdoms, without political unity. In the 12th century, Western kings gradually imposed their authority over larger territories, but power largely remained in the hands of local lords who organised feudal society. The Roman Church was the only institution that ensured unity in this politically divided space.

Pope Gregory VII (1073–1085) pursued significant moral reforms, impacting both religious officials (with priestly concubinage banned) and the normal people.

From the early 11th century, knights were required to swear before the Church to use violence in a controlled and moderate way: this was the Peace of God, which prohibited attacks on vulnerable individuals (women, peasants, priests), and the Truce of God, which imposed restrictions on violence, declaring that “neither man nor woman shall attack another, nor shall they assault a castle or village, from Wednesday at sunset to Monday at dawn.”

The Church had made efforts to assert itself as the regulator of social relations in a world where public authority was still weak. The Church sought to channel and substitute unchecked violence with the chivalric ideal, discouraging unnecessary brutality. To achieve this, the Church wielded a formidable tool: the promise of paradise, and its counterpart, the threat of hell.

The manifestations of Christian renewal did not stop there: the construction of churches in even the smallest villages, imposing cathedrals in towns (Romanesque architecture in the 12th century), and the popularity of major pilgrimages were clear signs of the renewed influence of the clergy and the intensity of faith.

The Church exercised comprehensive control over both the territory and the individual lives of Catholics. Geographically, the entire landscape was divided into dioceses and parishes, ensuring that no area was beyond its reach.

On a personal level, the Church marked and regulated each stage of life, from birth to death. Life was punctuated by key sacraments( baptism at birth, marriage in adulthood, and last rites at the end of life). Even after death, burial in consecrated ground reflected the Church's enduring influence. The rhythm of the year was shaped by religious festivals, the week by Sunday observance, and the day by the ringing of bells marking the hours.

In contrast, non-Catholics, such as Jews and heretics, were often subjected to recurring crises and persecution.

#B. The difficulties of the Byzantine Empire

#a) A theocracy

The Byzantine Empire, the eastern continuation of the Roman Empire, is a theocracy, from the Greek theos (God) and kratos (power), meaning that power is either exercised by religious figures or by a ruler considered to be God's representative on earth.

Religious law and civil law thus tend to become intertwined. The emperor (basileus) holds all power. Claiming to be God's representative among men, he is endowed with immense authority. For instance, when a foreign ambassador visits him, they must bow several times before the basileus and can only address him through an intermediary. An atmosphere of mystery (his throne rises by means of machinery) and impressive luxury surrounds him.

#b) Orthodox christianity

Closely tied to its prestige, inseparable from the imperial figure, and its traditions, the Byzantine Church regards the evolution of the Western Church with suspicion and is reluctant to submit to the authority of the Pope.

Furthermore, its autonomous development has allowed it to structure itself around its own practices and foundations, such as the veneration of icons: iconoduly (one must show respectful reverence to icons by kissing them, performing prostrations, and offering incense and lights to them, as the honour given to the image is directed to its original model).

After many crises, the split between the two branches of Christianity became official with the Great Schism of 1054. However, although the Pope and the Patriarch excommunicated each other, they maintained relations.