Vietnam War and public opinion, through photography, music, and cinema

Contents

1. Brief presentation of the war
2. 1968: a turning point
3. The role of photography, music and cinema

The Vietnam War stands as one of the most pivotal conflicts of the 20th century, marked not only by its geopolitical significance but also by its profound impact on public opinion, both domestically within the United States and internationally. At the heart of this impact lies the role of arts and media in shaping perceptions of the war.

The media played a pivotal role in shaping public opinion during the Vietnam War by providing unprecedented access to information through television coverage, photojournalism, and print media. Iconic images, such as those captured by photojournalists, evoked empathy and strengthened anti-war sentiment. Media outlets framed the conflict, often highlighting its moral ambiguities and atrocities, which undermined government efforts to maintain public support. Additionally, a vibrant counter-cultural movement used various media forms to challenge mainstream narratives and advocate for peace and social change.

This media coverage resonated globally, shaping perceptions of American foreign policy and sparking solidarity movements worldwide. In summary, the arts and media portrayal of the Vietnam War played a central role in fostering widespread opposition and catalysing social change. Moreover, music and cinema played crucial roles in shaping public opinion during this period. Movies and songs brought the realities of war to the forefront of public consciousness, sparking debate and introspection about America's involvement in Vietnam. Together, photography, music, and cinema provided a powerful platform for dissent and reflection during a tumultuous period in American history. They served as vehicles for expressing the complexities of the Vietnam War experience and galvanising opposition to militarism and imperialism.

#1. Brief presentation of the war

#A. The context of Cold War

Amidst the backdrop of the Cold War and the doctrine of containment against communism, the United States found itself entangled in the Vietnam War in 1964. The conflict stemmed from a civil war within Vietnam, where the communist forces of North Vietnam sought to unify the country under their rule. In response, the United States intervened to prevent the communist takeover of South Vietnam, viewing it as a crucial battleground in the global struggle against communism.

#B. Domino theory and bamboo curtain

This intervention was heavily influenced by the 'domino theory', a key tenet of Cold War ideology. According to this theory, if one country in a region fell to communism, neighbouring countries would also follow suit, like a row of dominoes. Thus, the United States perceived the conflict in Vietnam as not only a matter of regional stability, but also as a test of its commitment to containing the spread of communism worldwide.

The concept of the “bamboo curtain” added another layer of significance to U.S. involvement in Vietnam. Coined as a counterpart to the Iron Curtain in Europe, the bamboo curtain referred to the barrier of communist regimes and alliances in East Asia, including China and North Korea. The fear of communist expansion behind this curtain further fuelled American anxieties and solidified the perceived importance of preventing the spread of communism in Southeast Asia.

#D. American increasing involvement

South Vietnam, supported by the United States, struggled to combat the communist insurgency led by the Viet Cong, a guerilla force operating within South Vietnam. Meanwhile, North Vietnam provided significant military and logistical support to the Viet Cong, intensifying the conflict and turning it into a protracted and bloody struggle.

The United States' involvement in Vietnam escalated over the years, with troop levels reaching a peak in 1969. Despite pouring massive resources and manpower into the conflict, the war proved to be a quagmire for the United States, with no clear path to victory. The use of conventional military tactics against a determined and adaptable enemy, coupled with the challenging terrain and hostile environment, contributed to mounting casualties and public disillusionment back home.

#2. 1968: a turning point

#A. American propaganda before 1968

During the Vietnam War, American propaganda played a significant role in shaping public perception of the conflict. The media largely echoed information provided by the U.S. military without critical examination, including daily press conferences and the production of official films funded with substantial sums, totalling 200 million dollars.

Journalists embedded with troops on the ground often focused on the daily lives of American soldiers, catering to the interests of the American audience. Prior to 1968, there was minimal questioning of the legitimacy of the war by these media outlets. Films, songs, and other forms of media, which sought to align with public sentiment to ensure commercial success, reflected a prevailing belief in the righteousness of the war.

However, this portrayal predominantly resonated with the white majority of the American population, while largely overlooking the disproportionate impact of the conflict on marginalised groups, particularly African American soldiers. As a result, a consensus emerged among the media, public opinion, and the military in support of the war effort.

#B. Perception from 1968

#a) Living room war

The turning point of 1968 marked a significant shift in the perception of the Vietnam War, notably in the domains of photography, music, and cinema. This pivotal moment became known as the “living room war” as television emerged as the primary source of news for American households. By 1966, over 90% of American households owned a television, allowing the U.S. population to witness the war firsthand from their homes. Media outlets capitalised on this accessibility, presenting the conflict as a spectacle akin to cinema, with editing techniques mirroring those used in films.

Through the lens of photojournalism, the “Uncensored War” phenomenon (The “Uncensored War”, The Media and Vietnam, Daniel C. Hallin, 1989) brought the brutal realities of combat directly into American living rooms, amplifying the impact of the war on public consciousness.

#b) Anti-war movement

The Tet Offensive in January 1968 served as a psychological and media watershed moment, despite not resulting in a military victory for the communists. Televised images capturing communist forces overrunning the U.S. embassy shattered the perception of U.S. invincibility and highlighted the grim realities of the conflict. As public sentiment soured, media outlets reflected the shifting mood. These journalistic reflections contributed to a growing disillusionment with the war among the American public.

By 1968, public opinion had dramatically shifted, with only 35% of Americans approving of the war compared to 60% in 1965. Media outlets, driven by commercial interests, reflected this shift. Photojournalism played a crucial role in shaping public perception, offering stark visual narratives of the war's brutality and human cost. In the realm of music, the industry responded to the changing public mood by producing protest songs that resonated with an increasingly disillusioned audience. Cinema also played a role, with filmmakers incorporating anti-war themes into their work, reflecting and reinforcing the growing opposition to U.S. involvement in Vietnam.

Despite military victories on the ground, the dissemination of combat images by U.S. media had the opposite effect, fuelling growing hostility among the American public towards the war. Media outlets began expressing doubts about the US ability to emerge victorious and started portraying the harsh realities of the conflict, including the physical and psychological toll on soldiers, civilian casualties, and war crimes. As a result, the turning point of 1968 solidified widespread dissent and marked a critical juncture in the trajectory of the Vietnam War.

#3. The role of photography, music and cinema

#A. Photojournalism

Photojournalism played a critical role in shaping public perception of the Vietnam War, providing visual narratives that brought the brutal realities of combat directly into the homes of Americans. Iconic photographs captured by photojournalists on the front lines of the conflict served as powerful symbols of the war's human cost and fuelled anti-war sentiment.

In addition to capturing the grim realities of war, photojournalists also documented the anti-war movement and its impact on American society. Images of anti-war protests, draft card burnings, and acts of civil disobedience highlighted the growing dissent within the United States and contributed to the broader narrative of opposition to the war.

#a) Eddie Adams

One of the most famous images from the Vietnam War is Eddie Adams' photograph of the execution of a Viet Cong prisoner on the streets of Saigon during the Tet Offensive in 1968. The black-and-white image, which won the Pulitzer Prize, shocked the world and epitomised the brutality and moral ambiguity of the war.

#b) Nick Ut

Another iconic image is Nick Ut's photograph of nine-year-old Phan Thi Kim Phuc fleeing a napalm attack in the village of Trang Bang in 1972. The image of a naked and severely burned Kim Phuc captured the horrors of war and became a symbol of the innocent civilian victims caught in the crossfire of the conflict.

#c) Other photojournalists

Photojournalists like Don McCullin and Larry Burrows documented the day-to-day realities of combat, capturing moments of intense violence, human suffering, and acts of heroism. Their images provided an unfiltered view of the war, challenging prevailing narratives and prompting viewers to confront the harsh truths of the conflict.

#B. The role of music

Music played a profound role in reflecting and shaping public sentiment surrounding the Vietnam War, with numerous artists using their music as a platform to express opposition to the conflict and advocate for peace. The songs continue to resonate with audiences today as reminders of the importance of speaking out against injustice and violence.

#a) Reflection on the human cost of war

“Where Have All the Flowers Gone?” by Pete Seeger is a folk song that reflects on the cyclical nature of war and the human cost of conflict. Through its lyrics and simple melody, the song captures a sense of loss and disillusionment. It serves as a powerful reminder of the futility of war.

Where have all the flowers gone?
Long time passing.
Where have all the flowers gone?
Long time ago.
Where have all the flowers gone?
The girls have picked them every one.
Oh, When will you ever learn?
Oh, When will you ever learn?

Young girls
They've taken husbands every one.

Young men
They're all in uniform.

Soldiers
They've gone to graveyards every one.

Graveyards
They're covered with flowers every one.

Flowers
Young girls have picked them every one.

#b) Protest and anti-war songs

"Ohio" by Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young is a protest song inspired by the Kent State shootings in 1970. The lyrics express outrage at the government's response to anti-war protests and condemn the violence of the Vietnam War. Its powerful message made it an anthem of the anti-war movement.

Tin soldiers and Nixon coming
We're finally on our own
This summer I hear the drumming
Four dead in Ohio

Gotta get down to it
Soldiers are cutting us down
Should have been done long ago
What if you knew her
And found her dead on the ground
How can you run when you know?

Gotta get down to it
Soldiers are cutting us down
Should have been done long ago
What if you knew her
And found her dead on the ground
How can you run when you know?

Tin soldiers and Nixon coming
We're finally on our own
This summer I hear the drumming
Four dead in Ohio

"Give Peace a Chance" by John Lennon, recorded during his famous nonviolent protest in 1969, became an iconic anthem for the peace movement. Its universal message have made it a timeless symbol of hope and activism for peace.

Two, one two three four
Ev'rybody's talking about
Bagism, Shagism, Dragism, Madism, Ragism, Tagism
This-ism, that-ism, is-m, is-m, is-m.

All we are saying is give peace a chance
All we are saying is give peace a chance

C'mon
Ev'rybody's talking about Ministers,
Sinisters, Banisters and canisters
Bishops and Fishops and Rabbis and Pop eyes,
And bye bye, bye byes.

All we are saying is give peace a chance
All we are saying is give peace a chance

Let me tell you now
Ev'rybody's talking about
Revolution, evolution, masturbation,
Flagellation, regulation, integrations,
Meditations, United Nations,
Congratulations.

Ev'rybody's talking about
John and Yoko, Timmy Leary, Rosemary,
Tommy Smothers, Bobby Dylan, Tommy Cooper,
Derek Taylor, Norman Mailer,
Alan Ginsberg, Hare Krishna,
Hare, Hare Krishna

“Blowin' in the Wind” is one of Bob Dylan's most famous and influential songs, released in 1962. The song quickly became an anthem of the civil rights movement and the broader social and political upheaval of the 1960s. The lyrics pose a series of rhetorical questions about peace, war, and freedom.

How many roads must a man walk down
Before you call him a man?
How many seas must a white dove sail
Before she sleeps in the sand?
Yes, and how many times must the cannonballs fly
Before they're forever banned?

The answer, my friend, is blowin' in the wind
The answer is blowin' in the wind

Yes, and how many years must a mountain exist
Before it is washed to the sea?
And how many years can some people exist
Before they're allowed to be free?
Yes, and how many times can a man turn his head
And pretend that he just doesn't see?

The answer, my friend, is blowin' in the wind
The answer is blowin' in the wind

Yes, and how many times must a man look up
Before he can see the sky?
And how many ears must one man have
Before he can hear people cry?
Yes, and how many deaths will it take 'til he knows
That too many people have died?

The answer, my friend, is blowin' in the wind
The answer is blowin' in the wind

#C. Vietnam War on the big screen

The Vietnam War marked a significant shift in the portrayal of combat on the big screen, with new techniques in dialogues, sound effects, and music used to depict American troops in action. Films often focused on the perspective of low-ranking soldiers, highlighting the personal and harrowing nature of the war. These movies portrayed the sacrifices made by soldiers for the American nation, becoming integral to American identity. Many ended with close-up shots of characters, emphasising the reality of their experiences. Some films incorporated real interviews and footage, adding to their authenticity and intimacy. Unlike Hollywood war movies targeting a global audience, those about Vietnam aimed primarily at the American audience.

#a) Full Metal Jacket

“Full Metal Jacket,” released in 1987, is a Vietnam War film directed by Stanley Kubrick. The film defies categorisation among typical Hollywood war movies by embracing the contradictions of the Vietnam War. Divided into two parts, the film delves into the dehumanisation and loss of individuality experienced during military training, followed by the soldiers' combat experiences in Vietnam. The narrative emphasises the institutionalised system's prioritisation of function over individuality, vividly portraying the transformation of men into killers.

Through dark humour and psychological insight, the movie explores themes of trauma, fear, and the erosion of free will, challenging conventional notions of heroism. Characters like Joker and Sergeant Hartman embody duality and complexity, blurring moral lines and defying easy categorisation as heroes or villains.

The film's nuanced portrayal of war and its impact on individuals leaves audiences to grapple with ethical and existential questions, ultimately serving as a stark reflection on the human cost of conflict. The film also shows the significant role of photojournalism.

“Full Metal Jacket” received widespread critical acclaim upon its release. Critics praised the film for its raw portrayal of military life and the Vietnam War, as well as for Stanley Kubrick's meticulous direction and powerful storytelling.

#b) Platoon

“Platoon,” released in 1986, is a Vietnam War film directed by Oliver Stone, praised for its raw depiction of the moral and psychological challenges faced by soldiers in combat.

Set during the Vietnam War, the film follows a young soldier named Chris Taylor, played by Charlie Sheen, as he experiences the brutality and complexities of war. One of the key aspects of “Platoon” is its realistic portrayal of the Vietnam War. Oliver Stone, who served in the war himself, drew from his own experiences to create a film that felt authentic and immersive. The movie vividly depicts the chaos of combat, the camaraderie, the moral ambiguity among soldiers, and the psychological toll of war.

“Platoon” also had a significant impact on the film industry, both in terms of its style and its reception. It won four Academy Awards, including Best Picture and Best Director for Oliver Stone, cementing its status as one of the greatest war films ever made. The film's success helped to popularise a new wave of gritty and realistic war movies in the late 1980s and early 1990s, inspiring filmmakers to explore similar themes of trauma. Furthermore, “Platoon” sparked discussions about the Vietnam War and its legacy, prompting audiences to reflect on its impact on American society.