2. Totalitarian regimes
Key issues
- Assess the role of totalitarianism in the collapse of global peace in the late 1930s.
Key terms
- Totalitarianism
Discussion points
- Italian invasion of Abyssinia (1935-6)
- Rape of Nanjing (1937-8)
- Appeasement (1936-38)
A totalitarian regime is a political system that seeks to control all aspects of society, including individuals' thoughts within their private sphere. The ideologies of the USSR, Italy, and Germany during the interwar period each had specific characteristics but shared the common trait of denying individual freedom. The term totalitarianism originates from the Italian totalitaria, coined in 1924 by Amendola, just a few years after the end of the First World War.
Hannah Arendt, in The Origins of Totalitarianism, attributes the rise of totalitarian regimes to the breakdown of traditional class structures and the widespread alienation experienced in early 20th-century Europe. She argues that this alienation, coupled with the collapse of national political institutions, created fertile ground for ideologies promising absolute certainty and unity. George Mosse underscores the role of cultural and aesthetic manipulation in the rise of totalitarianism. In The Crisis of German Ideology, he expands this narrative by examining how the brutalisation of societies, stemming from the experiences of mass violence and dehumanisation during World War I, desensitised individuals to violence and made authoritarianism more palatable. This brutalisation not only normalised coercive and militaristic values but also allowed totalitarian regimes to legitimise their use of terror as a tool for social and political control. Both thinkers underscore how totalitarian ideologies capitalised on fear and uncertainty, amplified by a society already hardened to violence, to secure mass mobilisation and dismantle democratic institutions.
#1. Totalitarian regimes: rise, similarities, and ideological contrasts
#A. The rise of each totalitarian regime: a short chronology
#a) Establishment of totalitarianism in Italy
Following World War I, a weakened monarchy allowed Benito Mussolini to gather discontented factions and found the Fascist Party in 1919. By 1922, the fascists seized power, and Mussolini became Prime Minister, later consolidating control through laws that criminalised dissent and established a one-party state. By 1926, dictatorship was firmly in place, with political opposition silenced by the OVRA police force.
#b) Establishment of totalitarianism in the USSR
The 1917 Bolshevik Revolution eliminated opposition, with Lenin centralising power under the guise of a “dictatorship of the proletariat.” Following Lenin’s death in 1924, Stalin outmanoeuvred rivals, exiling and later assassinating Trotsky. By 1929, Stalin had consolidated power, driving rapid industrialisation and collectivisation, justifying totalitarian policies.
#c) Establishment of totalitarianism in Germany
Post-World War I Germany saw the establishment of the Weimar Republic and the signing of the Treaty of Versailles, which many viewed as humiliating. Amidst economic collapse and hyperinflation, Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party gained popularity. The 1929 economic crisis propelled the Nazis to prominence, and by 1933, Hitler was appointed Vice-Chancellor. From January 1933 to August 1934, he consolidated dictatorial power through legal means and suppression of opposition.
#B. Comparison of totalitarian ideologies
#a) Shared goal of creating a new world
Despite their distinct contexts and methods, all three totalitarian regimes sought to fundamentally reshape society and establish a “new world.” In the Soviet Union, the Bolsheviks envisioned a classless, egalitarian society as articulated by Marxist-Leninist ideology. This society would be free of capitalist exploitation and structured around collective ownership of resources. The individual was expected to subordinate personal ambitions to the broader goals of the proletariat, fostering a community defined by shared labour and mutual benefit.
In Fascist Italy, the emphasis was on creating a powerful, centralised state that transcended individual interests. Mussolini's vision prioritised the restoration of Italy’s historical greatness, inspired by the glory of the Roman Empire. The state became the ultimate authority, symbolising order and national unity. Individual freedoms were considered secondary to the strength of the collective, which was embodied by a revitalised and disciplined Italian nation.
Nazi Germany took the concept of a “new world” further by constructing it around the pseudo-scientific concept of racial purity. The Nazis sought to establish an Aryan-dominated society where the “master race” ruled supreme. This vision involved not only the eradication of perceived racial and genetic “impurities,” such as Jews and Roma, but also the conquest of Lebensraum (living space) in Eastern Europe. The individual was expected to willingly sacrifice personal interests for the racial community (Volksgemeinschaft), with a strong focus on militarism and ideological indoctrination.
#b) Ideological contrasts
While all three regimes pursued revolutionary transformations, their ideological foundations diverged significantly. Soviet ideology was rooted in Marxist principles, positing that history was driven by class struggle and aiming to establish a classless society through state control of the economy. Marx’s critique of religion as the “opium of the masses” underpinned the Soviet policy of atheism, seeking to replace religious institutions with loyalty to the Communist Party. The regime justified its full control and authority through the concept of the "dictatorship of the proletariat," as outlined by Lenin in The State and Revolution (1917), which viewed temporary centralisation as necessary to dismantle bourgeois power. However, under Stalin, this transitional phase became a permanent repressive system, diverging from Marx’s vision while framing its actions as essential for achieving communism.
In contrast, Italian Fascism centred on nationalism and state supremacy, placing significant emphasis on the restoration of Italy’s imperial legacy. Roger Griffin, a political theorist, describes a defining feature of fascism as a palingenetic utlranationalism. It was as an ideology rooted in the idea of national rebirth or renewal (palingenesis comes from the Greek for “rebirth” or “re-creation”). Fascism sought to rejuvenate a perceived decayed or weakened nation through a radical transformation, often through authoritarianism, violence, and the glorification of the past. Ultranationalism intensifies this by prioritising the nation's supremacy, often at the expense of individual rights and other nations. Together, palingenetic ultranationalism captures the fascist ambition of recreating a “pure” and revitalised national identity through revolutionary means. Fascist ideology embraced traditional institutions, including religion, recognising Catholicism as a cornerstone of Italian identity. However, its economic system allowed for private ownership under strict state control, differentiating it from the Soviet command economy. Fascism was initially indifferent to racial policies, and was even financed by Jewish bankers (Etore Ovazza, for example). Mussolini adopted antisemitic measures only later under Nazi influence.
Nazi ideology centred on racial purity and expansionism, distinguishing it from Soviet and Fascist regimes. Grounded in pseudo-scientific racial theories and eugenics, it categorised Jews, Roma, Slavs, and others as threats to Aryan supremacy, justifying exclusion, persecution, and extermination. The concept of Lebensraum, as detailed in Mein Kampf, drove Nazi expansion into Eastern Europe, with entire populations targeted for displacement or extermination, a central policy central to Nazi imperial ambitions. Religion was tolerated only when it aligned with Nazi goals, with Christianity seen as incompatible with the Nazi ethos of strength and racial hierarchy. Efforts were made to control religious institutions, aiming to replace faith with loyalty to the Führer. The Holocaust epitomised Nazi racial ideology, systematically exterminating six million Jews and other groups. Saul Friedländer, in The Years of Extermination, underscores how this genocide aimed to eradicate Jewish existence in Europe, making the Nazis’ systemic violence uniquely extreme among totalitarian regimes.
In summary, while the Soviet, Fascist, and Nazi regimes shared ambitions to reshape the world and assert full control, their ideological foundations and methods of achieving these goals reflected their unique historical, cultural, and political contexts.
#C. The creation or rebirth of a new man
Totalitarian regimes sought to create or revive a “new man,” an ideological archetype who embodied the regime’s values and served as the foundation for their revolutionary societies. This vision of transformation was rooted in the belief that existing human societies were corrupt, decadent, or divided, requiring a radical redefinition of humanity itself. Each regime envisioned this process differently, reflecting its unique ideological foundation.
#a) Soviet project: the creation of the proletarian man
The Soviet Union's vision of the “new man” was deeply embedded in Marxist-Leninist ideology, which framed history as a progression towards a classless utopia. Marxism positioned this new individual as a product of the end of history, a society where class struggle no longer existed. Lenin and Stalin conceptualised this transformation as achievable only through the dictatorship of the proletariat, a transitional phase where the state would suppress bourgeois remnants while reshaping society into a communist ideal.
The “new man” in the Soviet context was envisioned as selfless and deeply committed to the collective good. Free from the alienation of capitalism, he would derive fulfilment from contributing to the common welfare, with no concern for personal wealth or private ownership. In practice, this ideal was heavily promoted through Soviet propaganda, education, and cultural projects. Youth organisations like the Komsomol played a significant role in indoctrinating younger generations. Statues of muscular workers and farmers symbolised this ideal. Historian Sheila Fitzpatrick notes in Everyday Stalinism that the regime’s efforts to create this new individual often relied on coercion, surveillance, and the rewriting of personal identities to align with state objectives. While the ideal Soviet citizen was meant to be an altruistic builder of communism, the harsh realities of purges and forced collectivisation often clashed with this aspirational image.
#b) Fascist project: the rebirth of the virtuous man
Fascism, particularly in Mussolini’s Italy, sought to revive a morally and physically strong man who had supposedly been lost in the decadence of liberal democracies. This rebirth was tied to the restoration of the Roman Empire’s glory, as the Fascist state positioned itself as the moral and cultural guide to a renewed Italian identity. Fascist propaganda celebrated this new man as disciplined, athletic, and dedicated to the strength of the state and his community.
Fascist Italy’s educational reforms and youth organisations such as the Opera Nazionale Balilla, aimed to mould young Italians into loyal citizens who admired military discipline and imperial ambition. Mussolini often invoked the image of the virtuous Roman soldier, whose military courage and moral discipline were to inspire modern Italians. Historian Emilio Gentile highlights in Fascism as a Political Religion that this vision of the new man was heavily ritualised, with Fascist parades, oaths, and ceremonies acting as performative tools to instil a sense of shared destiny and duty.
#b) Nazi project: the racial purification
The Nazi vision of the “new man” was rooted in racial purity, reflecting the regime’s ideological obsession with eugenics and Aryan supremacy. Hitler’s goal, as outlined in Mein Kampf, was to forge a society where the “master race” would dominate, free from contamination by groups deemed inferior, such as Jews, Roma, and Slavs. This vision of racial purity extended to the physical and moral characteristics of the ideal German citizen, who was portrayed as vigorous, disciplined, and loyal to the Führer.
Nazi propaganda heavily promoted this ideal through organisations like the Hitler Youth, which indoctrinated young Germans into the Nazi worldview. The Lebensborn programme sought to encourage the birth of racially pure children, while the Nuremberg Laws institutionalised racial exclusion. Historian Ian Kershaw, in The Nazi Dictatorship, argues that the Nazi obsession with the “new man” also justified the regime’s systemic violence, as the elimination of those considered racially or biologically inferior was deemed essential for achieving this ideal. The Holocaust became the ultimate expression of this vision, aimed at eradicating perceived threats to the Aryan community.
#2. Mass mobilisation, propaganda, and terror in totalitarian regimes
The totalitarian regimes of the Soviet Union, Nazi Germany, and Fascist Italy relied on a combination of mass mobilisation, intense propaganda, and systematic terror to consolidate their power and suppress dissent. These mechanisms served to control workers, shape cultural and social life, and instil fear to ensure compliance.
#A. Mass mobilisation, cult of personality and propaganda
#a) Soviet Union
In the USSR, mass mobilisation aimed to integrate workers and citizens into the collective goals of the state. Trade unions were tightly controlled by the Communist Party, functioning as extensions of state policy rather than representing workers’ rights. Propaganda, led by figures such as Andrei Zhdanov, was pervasive, glorifying the Soviet state, its leadership, and socialist ideals. Art, literature, and music were conscripted into the doctrine of socialist realism, depicting idealised workers and the triumph of communism. Movements like Stakhanovism exemplified this mobilisation, promoting workers who exceeded quotas as heroes of socialism, often under exaggerated claims and immense pressure.
Youth organisations were critical to Soviet mass mobilisation, serving as vehicles for ideological indoctrination and social control. The Komsomol catered to adolescents and young adults, instilling loyalty to the Communist Party and preparing them for leadership roles in Soviet society. For younger children, the Little Octobrists and the Young Pioneers provided early exposure to socialist values through structured activities, including ceremonies, marches, and patriotic education. These organisations fostered a sense of collective identity and trained youth to view their lives as dedicated to the state's goals.
Stalin was called the Vozhd (the "leader").
#b) Fascist Italy
Fascist Italy mobilised its citizens through the corporatist model, where trade unions were abolished, and workers were integrated into state-controlled syndicates. Leisure and cultural activities were regulated by the state, with programmes like the Dopolavoro ("After Work") ensuring that even after-work activities reinforced Fascist values. Propaganda celebrated the strength of the Italian state and its imperial ambitions, often referencing the glory of ancient Rome. Artists and intellectuals were compelled to align with Fascist ideals, and dissent was met with censorship or exile.
Youth mobilisation played a vital role in Fascist Italy. The Opera Nazionale Balilla (ONB) targeted children and teenagers, embedding Fascist ideology through sports, military drills, and cultural activities. Younger children were in Balilla, teenagers in Avanguardisti. Boys were trained to become disciplined soldiers for the state, while girls were groomed to embrace traditional roles of motherhood and homemaking, all within the framework of service to the Fascist regime. These programmes worked to create a generation that internalised Mussolini’s vision of a restored and powerful Italy.
Stalin was called the Duce (the "leader").
#c) Nazi Germany
In Nazi Germany, mass mobilisation combined economic control and cultural manipulation. Wealthy industrialists, such as those in companies like Krupp and IG Farben, profited immensely through state contracts, aligning themselves with Nazi goals. Joseph Goebbels directed the Ministry of Propaganda, ensuring that every aspect of media, art, and entertainment reinforced Nazi ideology. Grand spectacles, organised by Albert Speer, such as the Nuremberg rallies, were staged to evoke national pride and loyalty to the Führer.
Youth mobilisation was integral to Nazi Germany’s strategy for shaping its future citizens. The Hitler Youth (Hitlerjugend) for boys and the League of German Maidens for girls indoctrinated millions of children with Nazi ideology. Boys were trained in military discipline and physical fitness, preparing them to become soldiers for the Reich. Girls were taught domestic skills and racial purity, reinforcing their roles as mothers of Aryan children. Activities included rallies, athletic competitions, and ideological training, creating a sense of belonging and loyalty to the Nazi cause. These organisations were designed to sever traditional family and community ties, replacing them with total allegiance to the Nazi state.
Hitler was called the Führer (the "leader").
#B. Terror, repression, and deportation
#a) Soviet Union
The USSR under Stalin employed terror as a cornerstone of its control. The Great Purge (1936-1938) systematically targeted perceived enemies of the state, including party members, military leaders, and ordinary citizens. Fear was pervasive, and self-censorship became the norm. Millions were deported to gulags, where forced labour and brutal conditions led to countless deaths. This terror aimed to silence opposition and solidify Stalin’s personal control over the Soviet Union.
Dissenters faced severe repercussions, with criticism of the regime leading to persecution or exile. Writers like Boris Pasternak and Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn experienced the regime's repression for their nonconformist works. Solzhenitsyn, in particular, exposed the brutal realities of the Soviet labour camp system through his seminal work The Gulag Archipelago. His writings revealed the oppressive mechanisms of the state, challenging the idealised image of the Soviet Union propagated by its leadership, and were a powerful indictment of Stalinist policies.
#b) Fascist Italy
While less extreme than the USSR or Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy employed terror to suppress opposition and maintain control. Political police, such as the OVRA, targeted dissenters, employing surveillance, intimidation, and imprisonment to silence critics of the regime. Many accused of anti-Fascist activities were sent to remote penal colonies like the Lipari Islands, where they were isolated from broader society.
Artists and intellectuals were not exempt from persecution. Those who failed to align their work with Fascist ideals faced censorship, harassment, or exile. For instance, the writer and playwright Luigi Pirandello, although initially supportive of Mussolini, found his work increasingly subjected to state scrutiny.
#c) Nazi Germany
In Nazi Germany, repression was systematic, relentless, and deeply embedded in every aspect of society. Opposition to the regime was brutally crushed, with dissenters facing swift and often lethal consequences. Groups like the White Rose, led by university students Sophie and Hans Scholl, attempted to resist through nonviolent means, such as distributing anti-Nazi pamphlets. Their actions were met with severe punishment. They were arrested, publicly tried, and executed in 1943, serving as an example of the regime's intolerance for dissent.
The Gestapo (secret police) and the SS (paramilitary organisation) were key instruments of repression. They surveilled, arrested, and interrogated suspected opponents, ranging from Communists and Social Democrats to clergy who opposed Nazi ideology. Those deemed enemies of the state were often sent to concentration camps, where they endured forced labour, torture, and in many cases, execution. Camps like Dachau, originally established for political prisoners in 1933, expanded to house other groups targeted by the Nazis.
The Nuremberg Laws of 1935 had already set a legal framework for racial exclusion, stripping Jews of citizenship and rights, leading to events like Kristallnacht in 1938, where synagogues were burned, Jewish businesses destroyed, and thousands arrested.
The repression extended into cultural life, with artists, writers, and intellectuals forced to adhere to Nazi ideology. Works that did not align with Aryan ideals were banned, and events like the 1933 book burnings demonstrated the regime's commitment to erasing dissenting ideas. Repression was so pervasive that fear and conformity became ingrained in daily life, ensuring that opposition remained minimal and heavily suppressed. The Nazi state used terror not only to punish dissent but to engineer a society where resistance was almost unimaginable.
#3. Totalitarian and authoritarian powers and the collapse of international peace
Totalitarian powers, like Nazi Germany, sought to control every aspect of society, including politics, culture, economy, and individual thought, using propaganda, mass mobilisation, and systematic terror to enforce ideological conformity. In contrast, authoritarian powers, such as Imperial Japan, focused primarily on political control while allowing some degree of social and economic autonomy. Japan’s militarist government maintained traditional hierarchies and institutions like the emperor’s role, whereas Germany’s Nazi regime aimed to completely restructure society around its racial ideology.
#A. Fascist Italy: Imperial revival and Mediterranean domination
Fascist Italy sought to resurrect the glory of the Roman Empire by expanding its influence across the Mediterranean (seen as a Mare Nostrum) and Africa. Mussolini’s ideology justified territorial expansion as necessary for Italy’s survival and greatness. The conquest of Abyssinia in 1935-1936 exemplified this ambition, demonstrating Italy’s willingness to defy international norms, as seen in its blatant disregard for the League of Nations. Mussolini's pact with Nazi Germany in 1939 and subsequent entry into World War II were driven by a belief that war would consolidate Italy’s position as a global power. Mussolini viewed conflict as a means of forging national unity and reinforcing the state’s authority.
#B. Nazi Germany: Racial supremacy and territorial expansion
For Nazi Germany, ideology and war were inextricably linked. Hitler’s vision, articulated in Mein Kampf, centred on the concept of Lebensraum, which justified the conquest of Eastern Europe to secure territory for the Aryan race. War was not merely a means of expansion but a racial struggle, essential for achieving the Nazi ideal of a racially pure state. The aggressive policy of Hitler was met with limited resistance from Western democracies, as Britain and France pursued a policy of appeasement, hoping to avoid another large-scale war. The Munich Agreement of 1938, which allowed Germany to annex the Sudetenland, epitomised this failure to confront Hitler’s ambitions, emboldening him to escalate his territorial expansion. The invasion of Poland in 1939 marked the ultimate expression of this ideology, igniting World War II.
#C. Imperial Japan: Militarism and Asian dominance
Imperial Japan’s aggressive foreign policy was deeply rooted in its totalitarian militarism, ideology of pan-Asianism, and belief in Japanese racial and cultural superiority.
Japan’s expansion began with the invasion of Manchuria in 1931, justified as a necessary step to secure resources such as coal and iron for its growing economy. The establishment of the puppet state of Manchukuo demonstrated Japan’s intent to dominate East Asia under the guise of regional stability. This aggressive policy was marked by the Rape of Nanjing.
In December 1937, Japanese forces captured the Chinese city of Nanjing (or Nanking), leading to one of the most horrific atrocities of the 20th century. Over a six-week period, Japanese soldiers engaged in mass executions, systematic rape, looting, and widespread destruction. Estimates suggest that between 200,000 and 300,000 civilians and prisoners of war were murdered, and tens of thousands of women were raped. Historian Iris Chang, in The Rape of Nanking, describes how this massacre exemplified Japan’s extreme brutality and disregard for international norms, driven by its belief in racial superiority and the dehumanisation of the Chinese.
The Rape of Nanjing was not an isolated incident but a reflection of Japan’s broader strategy of using terror to subjugate occupied territories. This event shocked the world but failed to provoke a decisive response from Western powers, emboldening Japan to continue its aggressive policies.
Japan’s militarist leadership viewed expansion and war as essential for securing resources and achieving dominance. The invasion of China escalated into full-scale war, with Japan occupying significant parts of the country by 1938. These campaigns were justified by a rhetoric of pan-Asian unity. As tensions with Western powers grew, Japan’s leaders saw the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 as a necessary preemptive strike to secure dominance in the Pacific and eliminate American interference in its expansion.
Japan’s aggressive foreign policy was not only driven by economic necessity, such as securing oil, rubber, and other critical resources, but also by a nationalist fervour that prioritised military dominance and cultural superiority.
#D. Alliances and the road to war
#a) Short chronology of the coalition
The coalition between the totalitarian regimes of Fascist Italy, Nazi Germany, and Imperial Japan evolved through a series of diplomatic and military agreements driven by shared expansionist ambitions and ideological alignment.
October 1936: Rome-Berlin Axis
Italy and Germany solidified their relationship with the Rome-Berlin Axis agreement, formalising their shared opposition to Western democracies and communism. This marked the beginning of a closer collaboration between Mussolini and Hitler, united by a vision of reshaping Europe’s political order.
November 1936: Anti-Comintern Pact
Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact, aimed at countering the influence of the Soviet Union and its international communist network. This agreement laid the groundwork for future cooperation between the two powers.
November 1937: Italy Joins the Anti-Comintern Pact
Italy joined the Anti-Comintern Pact, forming a trilateral alignment against the Soviet Union and communism. This development marked the first formal coalition of the three powers, with their mutual opposition to communism as a unifying factor.
May 1939: Pact of Steel
Italy and Germany signed the Pact of Steel, committing to mutual military support in the event of war. This agreement solidified their military and ideological partnership, with Mussolini declaring Italy’s readiness to follow Germany into conflict.
August 1939: Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact
Although not involving Italy or Japan, this non-aggression pact between Germany and the Soviet Union allowed Germany to invade Poland without fear of Soviet retaliation. The pact temporarily excluded Japan but underscored Germany’s strategic pragmatism in the lead-up to war.
September 1940: Tripartite Pact
The coalition between Germany, Italy, and Japan was formalised through the Tripartite Pact. The agreement established a military alliance and declared their intention to create a new world order, dividing spheres of influence in Europe and Asia. This pact marked the high point of their collaboration and mutual support.
December 1941: Attack on Pearl Harbor
Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor brought the United States into the war. Shortly after, Germany and Italy declared war on the United States, fulfilling their obligations under the Tripartite Pact and fully aligning their military efforts in World War II.
#b) War as an ideological and economic necessity
War was both an ideological and economic imperative for the totalitarian regimes of Fascist Italy, Nazi Germany, and the authoritarian Imperial Japan. Fascist Italy pursued war to revive imperial glory and secure resources for its struggling economy, exemplified by the conquest of Ethiopia. Nazi Germany saw war as essential for achieving Lebensraum, overturning the post-World War I order, and accessing resources in occupied territories to sustain its militarised economy. Imperial Japan, lacking vital resources like oil and rubber, used military aggression in Manchuria and Southeast Asia to secure economic self-sufficiency and assert regional dominance. Their shared dependence on war to achieve ideological and economic goals drove the collapse of global peace and intensified the path to World War II.