Introduction - The notion of environment

For the majority of us, the environment means nature (wildlife and flora) and its protection. However, for geographers, this notion of nature is broader and includes humans.

#1. Definition, evolution and representations of the concept

#A. The environment as a research topic in Geography

In Geography, the term encompasses both nature and human presence, emphasising the interactions between human societies and the natural world. Human activities such as inhabiting, building, and altering nature are integral components of this concept, referred to as anthropisation.

According to geographer Yvette Veyret, Geography explores the interplay between humans and nature, highlighting their mutual influence. In contrast, ecology solely focuses on the study of nature, excluding human involvement.

#B. Variety of representations of a human and social construct

In geography, the environment is a human and social construct, perceived and experienced by humans. Thus, in the Western world, until the 19th century, the coastline, and mountains were feared and sparsely populated.

However, perceptions shifted through the development of human activities such as art, hygiene, sports, etc., transforming these spaces into attractive, aesthetic, and sometimes heritage sites (such as Le Morne in Mauritius). Historians, like Alain Corbin (Le territoire du vide,1988), have explored the evolution of those perspectives on nature.

As a social object, it is managed to provide resources and mitigate natural risks. This management has evolved through history and still varies among different societies. Representations are not set in stone.

Let's consider the changing representation of the bear. Once revered as a god, from the Middle Ages, it became a threat. The Catholic Church sought its eradication due to its perceived competition with the one true God, favouring the lion as the king of animals. Today, perspectives on bears vary among different human groups, as seen in the conflict over the reintroduction of bears in the Pyrenées in France. Locals often oppose it, while urban environmentalists support it. Michel Pastoureau, in L’ours, histoire d’un roi déchu (2007), has delved into this fascinating change of representations and attitudes towards bears.

#C. The environment and its political and geopolitical implications

#a) Political implications

Since Prehistory, humans have steadily increased their impact on the environment, viewing it primarily as a resource ripe for exploitation. The concept of actively safeguarding the environment is a relatively modern development, exemplified by the establishment of Yellowstone National Park in the USA in 1872, as the world's first national park.

It was not until the 1970s that environmental concerns truly gained political traction, spurred by a growing awareness of the adverse effects of unchecked economic growth. This era saw the emergence of the first environmental non-governmental organisations (NGOs), like Greenpeace, in 1971, and the establishment of the first environmental ministries(in France, in 1971). Moreover, it witnessed the formation of the first environmental political parties, with the inaugural ecological candidacy in the French presidential election occurring in 1974. The international community also began to address environmental issues on a global scale, exemplified by the United Nations organising the first Earth Summit in Stockholm in 1972, subsequently held every decade. This shift reflected the recognition of the interconnectedness of environmental challenges and the need for coordinated global action beyond national borders.

#b) Geopolitical implications

The environment serves as a stage for conflicts of interest between States and different stakeholders. In the Arctic, for example, various actors compete for dominance. NGOs such as Greenpeace vigorously push for extensive environmental safeguards, standing in opposition to oil companies and governments eager to exploit resources.

Similarly, local communities work to preserve their cultural heritage and resources against the encroachment of state-driven exploitation. Despite growing ecological awareness, this mindset is not universally embraced, encountering resistance at various levels of society.

#2. Ecohistory: the History of the environment

#A. A recent history

Ecohistory, emerging in the early 1970s in the United States, particularly on the campuses of the West Coast, aimed to study the intricate relationships between societies and nature across extended periods. Rooted in a History from below, i.e., a History of the common people, it delved into the experiences of ordinary people, women, and minorities amidst the backdrop of feminist liberation and civil rights movements.

Its fundamental goal was to re-frame historical narratives by acknowledging humanity's profound impact on the planet. Any historical topic could be revisited, such as the environmental repercussions of the Colombian Exchange following Christopher Columbus's conquests in the Americas.

Ecohistory was not just an academic pursuit, it was often infused with activism. A notable example is Rachel Carson's book, Silent Spring (1962), where she exposed the devastating effects of pesticides on birds and bees, painting a stark picture of a world where nature falls silent in their absence.

#B. The Anthropocene

Ecohistory has brought to light the intensity and rapidity of changes occurring over a remarkably short period: climate change, rising sea levels, species extinction, among others. These developments have led to the recognition of a new epoch: the Anthropocene.

The Anthropocene, meaning the age of humans, was proposed in 2000 by Paul Crutzen to denote a new geological era following the end of the Holocene (period that began after the last ice age approximately 12,000 years ago). In this new era, humans emerge as a decisive factor in shaping the planet's evolution.

Crutzen suggests the Anthropocene began either in the 18th century with the invention of the steam engine or post-1945 with the use of atomic bombs and large-scale industrialisation. While the concept sparks debate within the hard sciences, it has gained significant traction in the Humanities and media circles.