Indian Ocean, cooperation and rivalry
The Indian Ocean, the world's third-largest ocean, spans 70.5 million square kilometres, representing 19.8% of the Earth's surface water. It is demarcated by Cape Agulhas at the western boundary; the southernmost tip of Tasmania near Australia as its eastern limit; Antarctica, and the Southern Ocean to the south; and marginal seas to the north, including the Arabian Sea, Laccadive Sea, Bay of Bengal, and Andaman Sea leading to the Malacca Strait. For the purposes of this topic, we need to include the Red Sea and the Mozambique Channel to have a more comprehensive view of geopolitical matters.
Historically considered a marginal ocean, the Indian Ocean can now be seen as the 'center of the world', due to the evolving forces of globalisation, particularly its role for the emerging economies like those comprising the BRICS, since 2001. This ocean serves as a vital link connecting European markets with Asian production hubs, reshaping global economic governance, foreign policies, and triggering potential rivalries among regional and extra-regional powers, despite ongoing cooperation initiatives. This chapter will assess regional and international rivalries and collaborations at various scales.
How much has the Indian Ocean become the 'center of the world'? What are the regional and international rivalries within the Indian Ocean region? And, to finish, does regional and international cooperation still exist within the Indian Ocean?
#1. Cultural and economic diversity, geostrategy and militarisation of the ocean
#A. Countries of the region and extra-regional presence
The Indian Ocean is a diverse region, characterised by a heterogeneous mix of countries that have taken distinct paths to human development, resulting in varying Human Development Index (HDI) rankings. HDI is a composite index from 0 to 1, obtained with three indicators:
- literacy (education and schooling),
- life expectancy (health),
- GDP per capita (standard of living).
This diversity reflects the stratification and hierarchy of countries and territories in the context of globalisation, i.e., a world system in which countries that have the lowest HDI are actors of less significance.
#a) LDCs
Within this region, certain countries fall under the classification of LDCs (The Least Developed Countries), as defined by the United Nations in 1971, indicating the lowest levels of socioeconomic development.
Notably, several countries in the region exhibit very low HDI scores, including Mozambique, Comoros, Madagascar, Tanzania, Somalia, and Yemen.
#b) Emerging countries and territories more integrated to globalised flows
In addition to the countries facing developmental challenges, the Indian Ocean region is also home to nations that have successfully emerged as influential players within the globalised landscape. Notable examples include countries that are part of BRICS, like South Africa and India, which actively play a role in global economic governance.
Transnational corporations (TNCs)always look for a skilled and cheap workforce, easy access to resources and markets, low tax policies, and political stability. In this context, the Indian Ocean region encompasses territories that have cultivated significant competitive advantages for Transnational corporations (TNCs), assuming distinct roles in the realm of international trade.
Mauritius and the Seychelles stand out as tax havens for corporations seeking to optimise financial flows and minimise tax implications associated with their global operations. These nations have effectively bolstered their economies and witnessed the growth of burgeoning middle-class populations.
#c) Extra-regional powers presence in the Indian Ocean region
The Indian Ocean region plays a pivotal role in our interconnected global economies, but with this importance comes a surge in tensions and strategic challenges. While it was historically considered a 'British lake' during the United Kingdom's era of economic dominance (pre-First World War), the landscape has undergone dramatic transformations, underscoring the diverse interests of numerous countries in a region that links several continents.
The presence of American military forces on Diego Garcia, a part of the British Indian Ocean Territory leased to the USA, not only demonstrates the will to secure seapower, but also the intrinsic dynamics of this region. A significant portion of the Indian Ocean remains international waters, attracting extra-regional nations eager to safeguard trade routes, protect their commercial networks, and pursue strategic military interests. Those joint operations in the Indian Ocean also include China and the countries of European Union.
#B. A pivotal region in globalisation?
#a) The significance of seas and oceans in globalization
Maritime trade is the backbone of globalisation. The modernisation of shipping has been instrumental in shaping this reality. Cargo from productive regions is now containerised, and vessels are specialised based on the specific supply or type of material they transport. This approach aligns with the rationalisation of trade, aimed at achieving cost-effective outsourcing strategies devised by transnational economic players.
The concentration of trade has, however, given rise to the issue of piracy, predominantly in the Horn of Africa region.
#b) Energy resources
The Indian Ocean region boasts vast hydrocarbon resources, with offshore exploitation playing a role in its overall significance.
A prime illustration is the extraction of natural gas along the coastal area of Mozambique. Moreover, the region's connection to the Arabian Gulf, a global hub for hydrocarbon production and trade, further underscores its energy resource importance.
#c) Other globalised flows
In the realm of data, submarine cables facilitate highly substantial flows. Those digital flows include all the financial flows.
Key players in the telecommunications sector, like Huawei, supported by the Chinese government, are actively engaged. For China, the objective here is the establishment of a 'digital Silk Road', closely aligned with the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).
The region also serves as a focal point for tourist flows, with destinations like Mauritius, the Seychelles, and the Maldives attracting substantial visitor numbers.
#C. Halieutic resources and environmental issues
#a) halieutic resources and the 'Blue economy'
The 'Blue economy' represents the sustainable harnessing of marine resources. Notably, China is actively investing in this arena, with initiatives like those seen in Madagascar.
Efforts are also underway to regulate seabed mining, resource extraction, and combat illegal fishing activities.
#b) Pollution
Frequent petroleum discharges occur in this region due to its role in hosting major and bustling maritime routes. Consequently, there is a heightened risk of oil spills.
Coastal areas are at risk of pollution from industrial and agricultural pesticides, posing a threat to aquatic organisms.
The accumulation of plastic debris is forming an immense gyre. It is estimated that most of plastic pollution originates from two rivers: the Indus and the Ganges.
#2. Rivalry and geopolitical challenges
#A. Regional problems
#a) Territorial claims and resource access
Tensions among countries can arise due to disputes over territorial claims and Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs).
France, for example, is vigilantly overseeing its extensive EEZ, which encompasses several islands, including those within the French Southern and Antarctic Lands (Terres Australes et Antarctiques Françaises, TAAF), such as the Scattered Islands (Îles Éparses) in the Mozambique Channel.
The Chagos Archipelago is currently administered by the UK, but as the consensus grew for it to be returned to Mauritian sovereignty, a UN resolution was issued. Tromelin remains under French occupation, despite agreements in 2010 indicating it should rightfully belong to Mauritius.
#b) Tensions between China and India
What is commonly referred to as the 'New Silk Roads' is China's ambitious Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). The 'Belt' aspect entails exerting influence over the maritime routes in the Indian Ocean. China is actively seeking strategic facilities through substantial investments in foreign nations. This strategy, often likened to a "String of Pearls," is characterised by encirclement of India.
Simultaneously, India is fortifying its regional influence. This is evident through initiatives like Indian military and commercial installations, including military facilities in Agalega, underscoring its growing presence in the region. India also has military alliance with France.
#B. Broader-scale concerns
The presence of other countries significantly contributes to the complex web of international and geopolitical tensions.
The Chinese Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and what is frequently perceived as a “String of Pearls” strategy represent global projects, transcending regional boundaries.
Among the global powers, France, the UK, and the USA hold a prominent position. These nations, along with China, possess permanent seats on the UN Security Council, which actively engages in addressing piracy and providing humanitarian assistance in the region.
Various other countries also have economic interests in the area, including seabed mineral exploration and bioprospection (for example, Germany, Japan, South Korea).
While some countries, like France and Japan, are multilateralism advocates, others, such as China and the USA, hold divergent perspectives on this approach.
#3. Evidences of relative cooperation
#A. Benefits of regional and international cooperation in the region
#a) Diverse forms of regional cooperation
There are various organisations in the region showing different levels of cooperation:
- SADC (Southern African Development Community): a regional economic community in Southern Africa, fostering cooperation and development among member States.
- AU (African Union): a continental union comprising African nations, working toward economic, political, and social integration in Africa.
- IAD (Intergovernmental Authority on Development): a regional organisation in East Africa, addressing issues of peace, security, and development among member countries.
- SAARC (South Asian Association For Regional Cooperation): a regional intergovernmental organisation comprising South Asian countries, promoting regional cooperation and development.
- GCC (Gulf Cooperation Council): a political and economic alliance of Gulf countries aimed at enhancing cooperation in various sectors.
- ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations): a regional organisation in Southeast Asia, promoting political and economic cooperation among member States.
- IORA (Indian Ocean Rim Association): a forum for countries bordering the Indian Ocean, encouraging economic, political, and cultural cooperation in the region.
#b) Anti-piracy measures and humanitarian assistance
Operation Atlanta, a well-known European Union-led sea anti-piracy mission, has been instrumental in countering piracy. In 2009, NATO also played a key role in anti-piracy efforts with Operation Shield, which concluded in 2016. As the motor of globalisation, China also joined collaborative missions to get rid of piracy in the Gulf of Aden.
Humanitarian operations in the region are carried out by organisations such as the United Nations (UN), the European Union (EU), and India.