Introduction - Characteristics of the oceans and space
Oceans and space continue to represent frontiers to explore, despite the advancements in our understanding of them since the 1950s.
Twelve astronauts have landed on the moon, but only five individuals have ventured to the deepest abyss at 10,900 meters under the sea level.
#1. Oceans: a progressive understanding, knowledge and control
Often referred to as the “sixth continent” due to their vastness (covering 71% of the planetary surface, or 360 million sq. km, i.e. 2.5 times the continents' surface), seas and oceans actually form a single global ocean as they communicate with each other through straits, canals, and international passages. Seas and oceans refer to vast expanses of saltwater. Seas and oceans present three fundamental differences in terms of:
- location (seas are always within a continent while oceans surround a continent),
- area (oceans are much larger),
- depth (oceans are deeper).
The International Hydrographic Organisation, IHO, identifies 7 oceans on Earth.
Abyssal regions, (derived from the Greek term abyssos, meaning without bottom), constitute deep oceanic expanses spanning from -3,000 to 11,000 meters. These areas consist of plains and ridges, lacking light, extremely cold and under immense pressure. Merely 20% have been cartographed, with a mere 2% having been thoroughly explored.
#A. Progressive knowledge through technological advances
Knowledge and mastery of the seas and oceans started in ancient history and gained momentum during the modern era. Europeans and Chinese pioneers ventured into deep-sea navigation, using innovations such as the compass and square rig.
This advancement eased the inaugural mapping of the world and the onset of global integration during the modern era. Magellan's circumnavigation occurred in 1522.
In the 19th century, the Challenger expedition (1872-1876) spearheaded modern oceanography, progressively charting the seabed, comprehending ocean currents, and uncovering marine biodiversity.
Exploration of abyssal zones became viable in the 1950s due to technological advancements. However, during the Cold War, States prioritised investments in space exploration, owing to the substantial financial requirements of oceanography. Oceanographic endeavours resumed in the 21st century.
#B. High seas mastery economic significance in the 20th century
In the 20th century, States progressively territorialised oceans through legal and/or economic appropriation, leading to an increase in deep-sea fishing and the exploitation of offshore hydrocarbons.
This process was legitimised by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) during the Montego Bay Conference in 1982. UNCLOS defined maritime boundaries, including Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs), and designated the “high seas” as international waters, constituting an international public good covering 64% of the oceans.
#C. Asserting power through knowledge and control of the oceans
As stated by political scientist Serge Sur, power is a capacity: “the ability to do, ability to get things done, ability to hinder actions, and ability to abstain from actions”. Regarding the oceans, this capacity is also evident in:
- the crucial role of economic factors, including the control of maritime routes and resources;
- the significant influence of geopolitical factors, such as military deployment capabilities and power structures.
Following an extended period of British naval dominance in the 18th and 19th centuries, the United States has remained the preeminent global naval power. However, it currently contends with challenges posed by the naval forces of China.
#2. Space: recent knowledge and mastery
Space is the void between Earth's atmosphere and other celestial bodies, starting from 100 km above sea level (according to the Kármán line). Space poses constraints on its exploration: the absence of gravity and air, as well as extreme temperatures.
#A. Advancements during the latter half of the 20th century
Until the mid-20th century, humanity's comprehension of space was limited to observation, notably enhanced by innovations like Galileo's astronomical telescope in 1609.
The post-World War II era heralded the onset of the space race, fuelled by significant technological strides. Notably, the German V-2 rocket metamorphosed into the inaugural rocket, facilitated by the acquisition of German technologies by Allied forces. This period also witnessed the migration of Wernher von Braun to the USA in 1945.
The Cold War rivalry between the USA and the USSR spurred substantial investments in space exploration.
Presently, space endeavours primarily revolve around satellite deployment for communication, with a staggering 7,300 active satellites, with SpaceX contributing 3,660 to this tally.
#B. Proliferation of actors in the pursuit of influence
Space exploration has perpetually served as a pivotal battleground for asserting influence, necessitating significant investments while concurrently bolstering soft power. Currently, conventional space powers wield dominance:
- The USA retained its preeminent position with an annual budget of $40 billion.
- Russia remained the exclusive State capable of ferrying astronauts to the ISS(International Space Station), using Soyuz spacecraft since 2011.
- The EU possesses the esteemed Ariane satellite launcher.
- China has been at the forefront of recent advancements, including the exploration of the far side of the Moon in 2019.
- Space exploration is undergoing democratisation, with 60 countries housing a space agency, even if not all are actively participating in space missions.
#3. Frontiers in high demand
American historian F.J. Turner, in Frontier in American History, created the Frontier Thesis. According to him, American values (freedom, democracy, personal merit) have been rooted through the continual pushing of the frontier westward, and then globally.
The notion of “New Frontier” was introduced in 1960 by President John F. Kennedy to indicate the new challenges facing the USA, such as space.
#A. Emerging "territories" brimming with potential
#a) What makes ocean control so desirable?
Offshore hydrocarbons, rare metals, fishery resources, MRE (marine renewable energy) energies, sand, and other valuable resources are abundant in the ocean depths.
The strategic importance of the oceans is underscored by the fact that 90% of goods and information traverse through cables laid on the ocean floor, emphasising their vital role in global trade and communication networks.
Scientific advancements in oceanic surveillance, such as monitoring tsunamis through underwater bases, contribute to our understanding of natural phenomena and enhance early warning systems for disaster management.
The oceans represent the primary potential resource reservoir to address humanity's future needs, serving as a critical source of sustenance, energy, and raw materials essential for our continued development and survival.
#b) What makes space mastery so desirable?
The control of space offers access to valuable resources such as gas (helium), minerals (platinum), water, and solar energy, making it a desirable frontier for nations and private entities alike.
In addition to resource extraction, the exploration of space opens up new avenues for activities like space tourism, capitalising on the allure of the cosmos for rich and adventurous travellers.
Furthermore, space exploration yields essential scientific knowledge vital for Earth monitoring, particularly in addressing climate change through measures such as sea level control and natural risk management.
Moreover, asserting dominance in space enhances a nation's prestige and soft power, signalling technological prowess and leadership on the global stage.
The competition in the space race not only drives technological innovation but also strengthens States' power by fostering the development of advanced computing and satellite-dependent technologies (like GPS and communication technologies).
#B. Tensions, or cooperation?
#a) Geopolitical challenges of the 21st century
They are privileged places for indirect confrontations between powers. But their mastery also fosters international cooperation: major space programs, like the International Space Station (ISS), rely on cooperation. New private actors, exemplified by Elon Musk's SpaceX, Jeff Bezos' Blue Origin, or Richard Branson's Virgin Galactic compete with States in what is known as “New Space”.
#b) Mastery of the oceans and space complement each other
Much of the communication and tracking systems at sea rely on space satellite networks, as demonstrated by the launch of the CleanSeaNet satellite system by the EU in 2007 for detecting oil spills in European waters.