Conclusion - Heritage in France: significant preservation and promotion actions
In 2022, France ranked 5th globally in the UNESCO ranking:
- It boasts 49 sites classified as tangible heritage (cultural or natural).
- Additionally, 26 cultural practices are classified as intangible cultural heritage.
- Furthermore, over 47,000 monuments are classified at the national level. This exceptional asset of French soft power sees its heritage being meticulously cared for:
- It is protected, preserved, restored, and rehabilitated by numerous stakeholders at all levels.
- Moreover, it is valued, democratised, and passed down to citizens through various means such as tourism, consultations, heritage days, and heritage education programs.
How does France enhance its heritage to strengthen the development of its territories domestically and its international influence?
#1. The management of heritage in France: evolution of a public policy
#A. The French Revolution: A founding moment for state heritage policy in France
#a) The emergence of modern heritage (1790s)
The modern notion of heritage emerged rapidly in 1790, encompassing both tangible assets such as monuments, works of art, and books, as well as intangible cultural elements, including traditional skills and knowledge. A key example is the foundation of the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers by the Abbé Grégoire in 1799.
#b) Causes behind the rise of heritage conservation
The movement to preserve national heritage was driven by the confiscation of properties belonging to the clergy and émigrés, which were declared national assets from 1789. These properties were no longer the private domain of religious or royal institutions but became the collective property of the Nation. In 1790, the Commission des Monuments was established alongside the National Archives, tasked with the first systematic inventories and conservation efforts.
However, the Revolution also led to the destruction of monuments and works of art associated with the monarchy and the Church. Many buildings and objects were vandalised, a term coined in 1790 by the Abbé Grégoire. A striking example of this is the defacement of the statues in the Galerie des Rois on the façade of Notre-Dame de Paris. By 1794, acts of cultural destruction were officially recognised as crimes.
#c) The dual approach: identification and protection
Two key heritage practices emerged during the Revolution. The first was identification, involving the inventory and selection of confiscated works for preservation. The second was protection and valorisation, exemplified by the opening of the Louvre Museum in 1793 as a means of safeguarding and showcasing national treasures.
#B. The 19th century: the rise of state intervention in heritage conservation
#a) The institutionalisation of historic monuments
During the 19th century, heritage became a matter of state policy, with authorities determining what should be preserved. Museums proliferated across Europe, reflecting the didactic aim of educating the public about history and culture.
A surge in restoration efforts, particularly concerning medieval heritage, was partly inspired by figures such as Victor Hugo, whose novel Notre-Dame de Paris (1831) raised public awareness. One of the most influential restorers of the time, Eugène Viollet-le-Duc, reconstructed sites like the Cité de Carcassonne and the spire of Notre-Dame in a manner often inspired by an idealised medieval aesthetic rather than historical accuracy.
#b) Heritage as a tool for national reconciliation
Under Louis-Philippe (1830s), the concept of heritage was reformulated as a means of uniting the “old” and “new” France. A key example of this was the creation of the Musée de l’Histoire de France at Versailles. In 1830, the Commission des Monuments Historiques was established to compile a national inventory of buildings deemed worthy of preservation. Under the leadership of Prosper Mérimée, efforts to protect heritage were often challenged by a lack of widespread support.
Despite these efforts, heritage conservation was selective. State policies determined what was worthy of preservation, while other structures were demolished. For instance, Baron Haussmann’s urban renovations in Paris led to the destruction or dispersal of many historic sites. Similarly, fragments of French heritage, such as cloisters, were exported and reconstructed abroad, as seen in the Cloisters Museum in New York.
#C. The 20th century: expansion of heritage categories
#a) Recognition of private, natural, and scientific heritage
Heritage policy expanded beyond state-owned monuments to include private buildings, natural landscapes, scientific sites, and popular traditions. The 1905 law on the separation of Church and State placed religious buildings under the jurisdiction of the Commission des Monuments Historiques, transferring ownership of cathedrals to the State and parish churches to local municipalities.
In 1913, a major heritage protection law allowed private buildings to be classified as historic monuments, even without the owner's consent. In 1930, the definition of heritage further broadened with the introduction of monuments naturels, covering sites of scientific, legendary, or picturesque significance.
#b) The impact of war and industrialisation
The devastation of industrialisation and the two World Wars reinforced public attachment to heritage. The reconstruction of bombed cities, such as Saint-Malo, aimed to restore their historic character.
The 1960s saw further legal protections. The Malraux Law of 1962 introduced secteurs sauvegardés, preventing the uncontrolled modernisation of historic urban centres. This law notably preserved districts such as Vieux-Lyon. In 1963, France established its first national parks, including Port-Cros, Écrins, and Vanoise, demonstrating an increasing commitment to protecting natural heritage.
At the same time, regional museums dedicated to popular arts and traditions flourished, recognising the cultural contributions of diverse social groups.
#D. Heritage since the 1970s: expansion and diversification
#a) Decentralisation and new actors
From the 1970s, heritage management became more decentralised, involving multiple levels of governance. In 1977, the creation of the DRAC (Directions régionales des affaires culturelles) marked a shift, with 51% of heritage sites coming under the control of local authorities.
The Ministry of Culture followed suit by establishing a dedicated heritage department in 1978. These changes reflected the increasing role of regional and local actors in heritage conservation.
#b) The rise of industrial and contemporary heritage
Previously, heritage conservation had focused largely on medieval and classical monuments, often neglecting 19th-century industrial architecture. This began to change after the controversial destruction of the 19th-century Baltard market halls in Paris (1971), which triggered public outrage. Industrial heritage gained recognition, leading to projects such as the transformation of the Gare d'Orsay into a museum in 1981.
The scope of heritage also extended to photography, regional languages, and other cultural expressions, reflecting an increasingly inclusive approach. This trend, sometimes termed illimitation patrimoniale or omnipatrimonialisation, recognised the right of all social groups to have their histories preserved.
#E. Global heritage and tourism
#a) Heritage as a tool for cultural identity and tourism
The expansion of heritage conservation aligned with broader national and economic interests. Public authorities have used heritage policies to serve three key purposes:
- Nation-building – From the 19th century until 1945, heritage played a crucial role in constructing a shared national identity.
- Tourism – Since the 1960s, heritage has become central to the tourism industry, with France ranking as the world's most visited country. The sector contributes 10% of the country's GDP and employs two million people.
- Regional development – Since the 1980s, heritage has been leveraged to promote local economic growth and cultural identity.
Associations have also played an increasing role, championing “small” and “new” local heritage projects that preserve community memory.
#b) Private actors and international recognition
Corporate sponsorship has become a significant force in heritage conservation, with companies using philanthropy to associate themselves with prestigious cultural projects. French law incentivises corporate donations by offering a 60% tax deduction on contributions, meaning businesses effectively pay only 40% of the restoration costs. A notable example is the 2022 restoration of the statues in the Bassin du Char d’Apollon at Versailles, funded by the CMA CGM shipping group.
On the international stage, UNESCO has further elevated the concept of heritage. In 1972, the World Heritage Convention established a framework for recognising sites of global significance. French heritage sites inscribed by UNESCO include the French gastronomic meal (2010) and the Nord-Pas-de-Calais mining basin (2012).
Heritage conservation in France has evolved from a revolutionary project of nationalisation to a multifaceted policy incorporating state, local, and private actors. From medieval monuments to industrial sites, from architectural landmarks to regional languages, the concept of heritage has expanded continuously. Today, heritage is not just about preservation but also about identity, tourism, and economic development.
#2. Heritage between cultural legacy and economic reconversion: the mining basin of Nord-Pas-de-Calais
#A. A classified memorial heritage that transformed perceptions
#a) From an unwanted past to a recognised heritage
For three centuries, coal mining shaped the economy, landscapes, and collective memory of the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region. Known as the pays noirs (black lands), this industrial area was long associated with decline, poverty, and bleak landscapes. The remnants of mining activity, including slag heaps (terrils), miners’ housing estates (corons), abandoned pits, and industrial wastelands, were often perceived as outdated relics that hindered modernisation. For many, the only way forward was to erase these traces and pave the way for economic renewal.
However, in the late 1980s, attitudes began to change. A new movement emerged, advocating for the preservation and reinterpretation of this industrial past. This shift was reflected in cultural initiatives such as Claude Berri’s film Germinal (1993), which portrayed the struggles of miners and contributed to a growing recognition of their history. At the same time, several mining sites were classified as Monuments historiques, marking an official acknowledgment of their heritage value. The association Chaîne des terrils also began promoting the region’s slag heaps, transforming them into cultural and ecological landmarks. These efforts culminated in the early 2000s with a large-scale reconversion plan, leading to the UNESCO World Heritage classification of the mining basin in 2012, covering a vast area from Valenciennes to Béthune via Lens.
#b) What was classified as heritage?
The UNESCO classification extended beyond individual monuments to encompass an entire cultural and industrial landscape. More than 350 sites were recognised, including mining pits (fosses), slag heaps, and miners' housing estates, representing the physical legacy of coal mining. However, the classification also acknowledged the intangible aspects of this heritage, including the culture and way of life of the gueules noires (black faces), the miners who formed the backbone of the region’s industrial economy.
Beyond the industrial sites and traditions, the classification covered a living territory with 1.2 million inhabitants and three major urban centres: Lens, Douai, and Valenciennes. The recognition also led to the creation of 11 new museums, further solidifying the mining basin’s cultural significance. This approach framed the region not as a relic of the past but as a paysage culturel vivant (living cultural landscape), where historical preservation and contemporary revitalisation could coexist.
#B. The objectives of heritage classification
#a) Preserving history and collective memory
One of the primary objectives of the UNESCO classification was to transmit the history and memory of the mining communities. The recognition of workers' sacrifices, struggles, and contributions to France’s economic development was framed as a form of historical justice. Through heritage-making process, the painful history of the miners, marked by difficult working conditions, accidents, and labour conflicts, was acknowledged, ensuring that their legacy would not be forgotten.
The classification also served as a tool for collective identity, reinforcing a sense of belonging among local inhabitants. By preserving the material and cultural traces of mining life, the region could reclaim its industrial past not as a symbol of decline but as an essential chapter in its history. This shift allowed the mining heritage to be valued as a source of pride rather than a burden.
#b) Stimulating economic activity through tourism
Beyond its symbolic and historical significance, the classification aimed to generate economic benefits, particularly through tourism. The decline of the coal industry had left the region struggling with economic hardship and high unemployment. By transforming mining sites into cultural and tourist attractions, the goal was to create new economic opportunities and revitalise local communities.
Tourism was positioned as a key driver of this transformation, attracting visitors to discover the region’s industrial past while also supporting local businesses. Museums, guided tours, and cultural events were developed to showcase the mining heritage, turning it into an asset for economic diversification. However, while heritage tourism was expected to contribute to regional development, the actual impact remained dependent on broader economic and infrastructural factors.
#C. Heritage as a tool for economic and cultural reconversion
#a) Strategies for re-purposing the mining basin
The UNESCO classification acted as a catalyst for various redevelopment projects aimed at protecting, renovating, and re-purposing industrial sites. Several key initiatives were implemented to support this transition.
Museums played a central role in this reconversion. The most significant example is the Louvre-Lens, inaugurated in 2012, which sought to change the region’s image by positioning it as a centre of artistic and cultural excellence. Former miners’ housing estates (corons) were also rehabilitated, with some converted into social housing incorporating shared gardens, while others were transformed into high-end accommodations, such as the Cité des Électriciens near Béthune, where residents, tourists, and artists now coexist.
Cultural programming further contributed to revitalisation efforts, with former industrial sites re-purposed as venues for artistic performances and creative residencies. Even the slag heaps, once seen as scars on the landscape, were given new life as recreational and economic spaces, with some converted into ski slopes or vineyards. These innovative adaptations demonstrated the potential for industrial heritage to be both preserved and re-imagined in contemporary contexts.
#b) The economic impact and challenges of heritage-driven redevelopment
Despite these ambitious efforts, the economic outcomes of the mining basin’s heritage-making remained mixed. By 2019, the region had attracted approximately 150,000 tourists, but the majority were domestic visitors, and few stayed in Lens for extended periods. The limited presence of international tourists and short visitor stays meant that the economic impact remained relatively modest compared to expectations.
Heritage-driven economic development, while beneficial, was not sufficient on its own to fully address the region’s economic challenges. The transformation of industrial sites into cultural attractions needed to be accompanied by broader policies supporting employment, infrastructure, and business investment. The experience of Nord-Pas-de-Calais highlighted both the potential and the limitations of heritage as an economic development tool.
#D. A broader trend: the reconversion of industrial sites in France
The transformation of the Nord-Pas-de-Calais mining basin fits within a wider trend of industrial site reconversion across France. Many former industrial facilities have been repurposed as cultural and creative spaces, blending heritage preservation with contemporary uses.
In Paris, the former slaughterhouses of La Villette have been turned into a cultural park, while in Marseille, the Manufacture des Tabacs has become the Friche de la Belle de Mai, a hub for artistic and social innovation. Similarly, on Réunion Island, the former Stella Matutina sugar factory has been transformed into a museum showcasing the island’s sugar industry. These examples illustrate how industrial heritage can be leveraged not only for historical preservation but also as a dynamic resource for cultural and economic revitalisation.
The case of the Nord-Pas-de-Calais mining basin demonstrates that heritage-making is not merely about safeguarding the past, it is also about shaping the future. By reinterpreting industrial landscapes, integrating them into modern cultural life, and using them as drivers of tourism and economic renewal, regions can turn their heritage into an opportunity rather than a constraint. However, the experience also underscores the importance of comprehensive strategies that go beyond tourism, ensuring that heritage-driven development is part of a broader framework for regional transformation.
#3. Heritage as a driver of France’s cultural influence worldwide and a tool of diplomatic action
#A. Cultural influence and soft power
#a) Heritage as a diplomatic and economic asset
Although France’s global cultural influence cannot entirely compensate for its relative decline in political and economic power, it remains a vital tool of soft power. The promotion of national heritage, both within France and internationally, is central to maintaining this influence. Heritage serves as a diplomatic instrument, with iconic sites such as the Château de Versailles frequently hosting world leaders, reinforcing France’s historical and cultural prestige. More than just a symbolic tool, heritage also has significant economic repercussions, enhancing the country’s global appeal and contributing to its international standing. This strategic use of heritage is driven by a combination of public and private actors. Institutions such as the Louvre Abu Dhabi, the AEFE network of French schools in 130 countries, and luxury brands like Dior play a role in projecting France’s cultural influence abroad. These efforts illustrate how heritage, in its various forms, supports both diplomatic and economic objectives, ensuring that France remains a reference in global culture and lifestyle.
#B. Gastronomy as an economic and diplomatic tool
#a) The UNESCO recognition of French gastronomy
French gastronomy is an essential part of the country’s cultural identity and global reputation. It has been officially recognised as intangible cultural heritage by UNESCO since 2010 under the label le repas gastronomique des Français. This classification honours not just the quality of French cuisine but also the rituals and traditions surrounding the dining experience. Among the key elements included in this heritage recognition are the diversity of regional terroirs and product excellence, the harmonious pairing of food and wine, and the structured progression of meals, from appetisers to main courses, cheeses, desserts, and digestifs.
Beyond the food itself, the UNESCO listing highlights the social and cultural role of dining in France. The French meal is more than just sustenance; it is a shared experience centred on discussion, conviviality, and tradition. The practice of "bien manger" (eating well) and "bien boire" (drinking well) reinforces social bonds and celebrates important moments in life. This approach to food stands in contrast to fast food and industrialised eating habits, positioning French gastronomy as a symbol of quality, refinement, and cultural heritage.
#b) Gastronomy as a tool for economic development and soft power
French gastronomy plays a crucial role in the country’s economic strategy and global influence. It is promoted through various channels, including culinary education, gastronomic tourism, and international events. Prestigious culinary schools such as Vatel, Escoffier, and the Bocuse Institute train chefs from around the world, spreading French culinary expertise globally. Tourism also benefits greatly from France’s gastronomic reputation, with initiatives like "Goût de France / Good France", held in over 150 countries, showcasing French cuisine internationally. Additionally, wine routes in Burgundy, Champagne, and Bordeaux attract visitors eager to experience the richness of French terroirs.
The economic impact of gastronomy is substantial. The food and wine sector represents a major share of France’s exports, with 40% of the country’s exports linked directly or indirectly to the food industry. Moreover, culinary tourism is a significant driver of the hospitality industry, with 40% of international visitors citing food and wine as a primary reason for visiting France. This highlights the extent to which gastronomy contributes to the country’s attractiveness and economic vitality.
#C. Culinary diplomacy: The strategic use of food in international relations
#a) The concept of gastro-diplomacy
Gastro-diplomacy refers to the use of national culinary traditions as a means of exerting international influence. This strategy has long been employed by France, where "a good meal makes for good treaties". Food has historically played a role in diplomacy, serving as a tool to impress and persuade. During the reign of Louis XIV, for example, the royal chef François Vatel used lavish banquets to showcase French culinary superiority and, by extension, the power of the monarchy.
A key example of culinary diplomacy occurred during the Congress of Vienna in 1815, when Talleyrand, Napoleon’s former foreign minister, brought along his renowned chef Antonin Carême. The refinement of Carême’s cuisine was not just a display of French excellence, it also served as a subtle diplomatic strategy, influencing foreign representatives and fostering goodwill toward France.
#b) Contemporary culinary diplomacy
Culinary diplomacy remains a political asset today. French state dinners continue to uphold this tradition, with high-level political meetings often featuring carefully curated menus that reflect France’s gastronomic heritage. This practice reinforces the idea that sharing a meal is a way to build relationships, facilitate negotiations, and strengthen diplomatic ties. French presidents and diplomats frequently use haute cuisine as a tool of persuasion, cultivating France’s reputation for excellence and refinement on the international stage.
#D. Heritage as a pillar of French influence
Heritage serves multiple roles in France’s global strategy. It functions as a protective shield, ensuring the preservation of cultural assets. It also acts as a symbolic banner, affirming national identity and prestige. Additionally, heritage strengthens social cohesion, providing a shared cultural foundation for local and national communities. Whether through historical landmarks, haute couture, or gastronomy, France actively leverages its heritage to enhance its soft power.
From the smallest spoon to the grandest cathedral, heritage in France is a matter of both pride and policy. The country’s enthusiasm for preserving and promoting its cultural assets reflects a deep commitment to using its past as a foundation for its future influence. Whether reinforcing diplomatic ties through a state banquet or attracting millions of visitors through its culinary excellence, France continues to position itself as a leader in global culture, demonstrating that heritage is not just about conservation, it is also about strategic influence and economic power.