Section 2 - Heritage preservation: tensions and competing interests

Contents

1. Paris between protection and new urbanism: urbanisation, economic development, and heritage preservation
2. Venice: balancing tourism development and heritage preservation

Tensions and competition arise from various factors influencing heritage preservation. These include its role as a driver of development, subject to the fluctuations of its environment such as warfare, tourism, and urbanisation. Such dynamics create a complex landscape where heritage preservation contends with:

Daily activities like transportation and housing.
The urban expansion of metropolises amidst global competition.
The demands of mass tourism.
Environmental vulnerabilities.
Instances of conflict. Within these contexts, various stakeholders engage in competition and conflicts of use, as seen in the tensions between tourists and residents or the displacement of lower-income population by gentrification.

It becomes imperative to explore how heritage can be safeguarded in this context.

Conflict of use refers to competition or disputes that arise when multiple stakeholders contest the use of the same territory.

Gentrification occurs when working-class families are pushed out of city centres due to the high cost of housing and are replaced by wealthier families. This phenomenon typically follows the renovation or rehabilitation of a neighbourhood, which may include the development of pedestrian streets and the cultural enhancement of the area, such as the establishment of art galleries.

There is a distinction between renovation and rehabilitation:

Renovation involves the destruction and reconstruction of buildings.
Rehabilitation preserves the structure but transforms the interior and its function.

#1. Paris between protection and new urbanism: urbanisation, economic development, and heritage preservation

#A. Paris: a ‘global memory city’ and a ‘global city’

Paris is a prime example of the tensions that arise between the need to preserve cultural heritage and the demands of a modern global metropolis. As a city that must cater to its residents, support economic growth, and maintain its urban development, it faces significant challenges in balancing these often conflicting priorities.

Paris holds a unique dual identity as both a “global memory city” and a “global city”. It is one of the four major global metropolises, serving as a highly connected hub for economic, political, and cultural activities.

As a metropolis, Paris functions as a centre that concentrates wealth and economic activity while attracting a large population. Its influence extends beyond the city itself, shaping broader regional and international dynamics. Economically, it is home to the headquarters of major French multinational corporations and accounts for approximately 30% of France’s GDP. Politically, it serves as the seat of government, hosting institutions such as the National Assembly, the Senate and the Élysée Palace, as well as international organisations like UNESCO. Culturally, Paris is a global leader in media, education, and the arts, with institutions such as the Louvre Museum, which alone welcomes 10 million visitors per year.

The global status of a metropolis is largely determined by the_extent of its influence. According to sociologist Saskia Sassen (1991), if a city’s sphere of influence reaches an international scale, it qualifies as a global city. In addition, Paris is considered a hyper-place, meaning it is a location where a high concentration of people, activities, and heritage coexists within a highly connected global network.

#B. The urbanism of Paris: a heritage city in a modern world

Paris owes much of its urban structure to the 19th century, particularly the extensive renovations carried out under Baron Haussmann. Unlike other global metropolises such as London, New York, and Tokyo, whose city centres are dominated by skyscrapers (such as the City of London and Manhattan), Paris has retained an architecturally cohesive and historically rich cityscape.

The city’s urban heritage is reflected in its five UNESCO World Heritage sites, including the banks of the Seine. It boasts over 200 museums and more than 2,000 listed buildings. Additionally, two particularly significant heritage zones, protected under the Malraux Law, include the Marais district and a large part of the 7th arrondissement. The preservation and promotion of this heritage give Paris a competitive edge in the global race between major cities. Heritage conservation not only reinforces the city’s identity but also contributes to its economic attractiveness, drawing 20 million international tourists each year. This transformation from local heritage protection to global heritage accessibility is known as heritage globalisation.

#C. Tensions between heritage conservation and urban development

#a) Local conflicts over heritage protection

The conservation of heritage sites often leads to conflicts between different stakeholders regarding the use of urban space. In an effort to protect its historical assets, Paris has implemented several preservation policies, such as the Heritage Protection and Enhancement Plans (PSMV: Plan de Sauvegarde et de Mise en Valeur)and the pedestrianisation of the Seine riverbanks. However, these measures have sparked tensions between different groups with competing interests.

At the institutional level, heritage protection involves multiple actors, including local authorities (such as the mayor), national entities (the French government), and international organisations (notably UNESCO). Meanwhile, local users have expressed concerns about the economic consequences of these measures. Many residents argue that pedestrianisation and restrictions on traffic make parking and driving more difficult. Shopkeepers fear that limiting vehicle access may result in fewer customers, while motoring federations view such policies as an infringement on their rights. Political figures, such as the mayor of the 1st arrondissement, also take these concerns into account, particularly when seeking re-election by appealing to local voters.

#b) The challenge of urbanisation in a global city

As a major global city, Paris must continuously adapt to remain competitive on the world stage. To sustain its economic and social dynamism, the city needs to accommodate a growing population and ensure the efficient functioning of its urban services. However, these necessary transformations often come into conflict with heritage conservation.

Urbanisation, the increasing concentration of activities and people in urban spaces, is guided by the Local Urban Plan (PLU:Plan Local d'Urbanisme), which seeks to balance new developments with the need to protect historic sites. However, given the scale of challenges Paris faces, broader planning initiatives are required. This has led to the development of the Grand Paris project, which aims to expand the transport network and construct additional housing to alleviate chronic congestion in both Paris and its surrounding suburbs.

#c) The conflict between heritage and modern architecture

One of the most visible tensions between heritage conservation and urban modernisation is the rejection of contemporary architectural styles in the city centre. Unlike other global cities that have embraced skyscrapers within their urban cores, Paris has largely restricted such structures to its periphery. Modern high-rise developments, such as La Défense business district and the Louis Vuitton Foundation, have been built outside the city centre due to opposition from both preservation advocates and local residents.

Only a few exceptions exist, such as the Tour Montparnasse, which was constructed in 1969 and remains one of the tallest buildings in the city at 209 metres, second only to the Eiffel Tower (324 metres). However, its controversial impact on the city skyline has discouraged further high-rise construction in central Paris. Instead, the city has shifted from large-scale renovations to rehabilitation projects, which involve modernising buildings while preserving their historical structure. This approach is generally better received by residents, as it often involves public consultation and aims to integrate contemporary functions within historical sites. An example of this is the rehabilitation of the Halles Freyssinet in 2017, which was transformed into Station F, a major European start-up incubator.

#D. Balancing urbanisation and heritage in global metropolises

Heritage conservation is a key factor in economic development and international competitiveness. However, cities must carefully navigate the risks associated with both excessive urbanisation and overly rigid heritage preservation policies.

One of the main dangers of uncontrolled urbanisation is the potential damage to historical landmarks. A striking example is Vienna, which was placed on UNESCO’s list of endangered heritage sites due to large-scale modern construction projects within its historic centre. Conversely, excessive heritage conservation can lead to the phenomenon of museumification, where cities become overly dependent on tourism, often to the detriment of local residents.

Some cities, such as Prague, have faced severe gentrification, with historic districts becoming unaffordable for locals and primarily catering to tourists. Museumification occurs when urban areas become so tourist-focused that they lose their original residential and commercial functions, transforming into spaces that primarily serve visitors rather than the local population.

For Paris, the challenge lies in finding a balance between maintaining its global heritage appeal while ensuring that urban development meets the needs of its residents. By embracing thoughtful urban planning, the city can continue to evolve without compromising its rich cultural and historical legacy.

#2. Venice: balancing tourism development and heritage preservation

#A. Venice, a global tourism hotspot

#a) A UNESCO-listed heritage site of global significance

Venice, with its stunning canals, historic architecture, and rich cultural heritage, has been recognised as a UNESCO World Heritage site since 1987, along with its surrounding lagoon. This prestigious status has solidified its reputation as one of the world’s most sought-after tourist destinations. The city's unique urban landscape, with landmarks such as St Mark’s Basilica, the Doge’s Palace, and the Grand Canal, attracts millions of visitors eager to experience its history and charm. Additionally, Venice’s vibrant artistic and cultural scene, exemplified by events like the Venice Biennale and the Venice Film Festival, further enhances its global appeal.

However, the city's immense popularity comes with significant challenges. With 30 million tourists per year, Venice sees an astonishing 600 visitors for every resident, an overwhelming ratio that disrupts daily life. The rise of cruise tourism has further intensified this pressure, with 600 cruise ships docking annually, a ninefold increase in 20 years. These massive vessels, each carrying thousands of passengers, have contributed significantly to Venice’s tourism boom but have also raised serious concerns about their impact on the city's fragile ecosystem and infrastructure. In response, the Italian government officially banned large cruise ships from approaching the historic centre in 2021, a move aimed at protecting both the environment and the city's heritage.

#b) Tourism as a vital economic driver

Beyond its cultural and historical significance, Venice is an economic powerhouse, with tourism serving as a key pillar of the local and regional economy. Tourism is a key economic pillar for Venice and the Veneto region, generating an estimated €20-30 billion per year and supporting 65% of local jobs. This influx of visitors sustains thousands of businesses, including hotels, restaurants, tour operators, and artisanal workshops, which rely heavily on tourist spending.

Tourism also plays a crucial role in attracting foreign investment, with international corporations and wealthy individuals keen to acquire real estate, develop infrastructure, and invest in luxury services within Venice. This has led to increased commercialisation, with historic buildings being converted into hotels, high-end retail stores, or short-term rental accommodations catering exclusively to tourists. While these economic benefits are undeniable, the sheer volume of visitors and unchecked development pose long-term sustainability challenges.

Venice has become an over-touristed destination, struggling to balance the need for economic growth with the imperative of preserving its cultural and environmental heritage. As the city grapples with these competing demands, its ability to implement sustainable tourism policies will determine its future as both a living, functional urban space and a global cultural treasure.

#B. The threats of mass tourism

Venice’s immense popularity has led to severe overcrowding, creating tensions between tourists and local residents. The city’s small size and fragile infrastructure make it difficult to accommodate 30 million annual visitors, leading to economic and social transformations that have significantly altered daily life for Venetians.

One of the most visible effects of mass tourism is the disappearance of traditional businesses that once catered to residents. Many family-run shops, bookstores, bakeries, and artisanal workshops have been replaced by souvenir shops, fast-food outlets, and luxury boutiques aimed at tourists. The demand for quick, high-turnover businesses has led to a loss of local character, making it increasingly difficult for Venetians to find essential goods and services within their own city.

At the same time, the surge in tourist demand has driven real estate prices to unsustainable levels, making it unaffordable for many locals to continue living in Venice. Investors and property developers have converted historic homes into hotels, guesthouses, and short-term rental apartments, prioritising short-stay visitors over long-term residents. This process has led to a dramatic population decline, with many Venetians moving to the mainland in search of more affordable housing. The city, once a vibrant and lived-in space, is increasingly becoming a museum-like setting where tourists outnumber locals at all times.

Mass tourism has also contributed to physical damage to historic buildings, with increased foot traffic, pollution, and neglect accelerating the deterioration of fragile structures. The sheer volume of visitors has made it difficult to maintain cleanliness and waste management, with overcrowding leading to littering and strain on public services. The uncontrolled expansion of the tourism industry has compromised the authenticity of the city, turning Venice into a "theme park" experience rather than a genuine urban environment.

Venice’s transformation to accommodate tourists has led to what is often referred to as "Disneylandisation", the process by which local culture is reshaped and simplified to meet tourist expectations. Traditional customs, events, and craftsmanship are increasingly presented in a superficial, commercialised way, designed to entertain rather than preserve genuine heritage. Tourists often engage with staged cultural experiences, which risk replacing the true Venetian way of life with artificial attractions.

#b) Environmental consequences

Beyond its social and economic impact, mass tourism is accelerating the environmental degradation of Venice. The city, already vulnerable due to its fragile lagoon ecosystem, faces increasing threats from rising sea levels, pollution, and excessive human activity.

Venice has long been prone to "acqua alta" (high water), a natural phenomenon that causes temporary flooding in the city. However, the frequency and intensity of these floods have significantly increased, with mass tourism worsening the problem. The heavy daily foot traffic, combined with the weight and pressure from millions of visitors, is contributing to the sinking of the city, accelerating land subsidence. The growing number of large vessels and water taxis also disrupts the natural flow of the lagoon, making the floods even more severe.

One of the most controversial aspects of Venice’s tourism industry has been the influx of giant cruise ships, which bring thousands of tourists into the city each day. These ships, which were banned from the historic centre in 2021, have long been criticised for:

Eroding the foundations of buildings through the displacement of water.
Polluting the lagoon with emissions and waste.
Disturbing the delicate marine ecosystem, affecting local wildlife and water quality.

Despite the ban, the effects of cruise tourism remain visible, and debates continue over whether the city should allow smaller cruise vessels in designated docking areas.

Tourism has also led to an economic imbalance, as industries such as agriculture and fishing have declined in favour of tourism-related businesses. Farmers and fishers, who once played a central role in Venice’s economy, struggle to compete with the more lucrative tourism sector. This shift has weakened local food production, increasing dependence on imports and further altering the traditional Venetian way of life.

The sheer number of tourists has also resulted in a dramatic increase in waste production. Visitors generate massive amounts of litter, with 40% of the city’s total waste attributed to tourism. The demand for disposable packaging, single-use plastics, and bottled water has placed an additional burden on waste management services, further straining the city's resources.

UNESCO’s 2016 report on global heritage threats explicitly classified tourism as a major risk to cultural sites, alongside climate change and war. This recognition underscores the urgent need to rethink tourism models in Venice to prevent irreversible damage to its environment and heritage.

#C. Policies to regulate tourism and protect heritage

#a) Public measures to promote tourism

The Venetian authorities have long encouraged tourism as a key economic driver by investing in infrastructure and urban development. To accommodate the growing number of visitors, significant expansions have taken place in the city's transportation network. The airport and railway station have been upgraded to handle increased passenger flows, making Venice more accessible to international and domestic travellers. Additionally, the historic Arsenal, once a shipyard and military complex, has been converted into a multimodal cruise terminal, further facilitating the arrival of large numbers of tourists.

Another strategy used to attract foreign investment has been the sale of public buildings for private development. Many historic palaces and municipal properties have been acquired by investors and transformed into luxury hotels and high-end commercial spaces. While these investments contribute to economic growth, they also raise concerns about the increasing commercialisation of Venice’s heritage and the prioritisation of tourism over the needs of local residents.

To address concerns about Venice’s growing commercialisation and the decline of residential spaces, authorities have introduced bans on new hotels in the city centre.

#b) Attempts to regulate tourism

In response to the growing concerns over overtourism and its impact on both residents and the city’s fragile ecosystem, authorities have introduced a series of measures aimed at limiting tourist numbers and controlling visitor behaviour. However, these regulations have often been met with resistance or have been undermined by competing economic interests.

In 2017, the city banned the construction of new hotels in the historic centre in an effort to slow the expansion of tourist accommodation. However, this measure has been largely circumvented through the sale of public buildings, which have been repurposed into hotels despite the restrictions. In 2018, further steps were taken to manage tourist flows by introducing mandatory visitor routes in the busiest areas of the city. Some streets and docks were designated for residents only, attempting to preserve access for locals and reduce congestion in key areas.

One of the most significant decisions came in 2021 when large cruise ships were banned from approaching the historic centre. This measure was implemented to protect the delicate lagoon ecosystem and reduce the physical and environmental impact of mass tourism. Despite this ban, debates continue over how to manage cruise tourism effectively, as alternative docking locations outside the city still allow a high volume of passengers to enter Venice.

A more ambitious measure, originally planned for 2022 but delayed until 2023, proposes a daily tourist cap and an entrance fee ranging from €3 to €10 per visitor. This initiative aims to reduce overcrowding by limiting the number of tourists entering the city on any given day. However, its implementation has been postponed multiple times, reflecting the authorities’ ongoing struggle to balance economic interests with the need for heritage protection.

#c) Alternative tourism policies: the Amsterdam model

While Venice has taken tentative steps to manage tourism, other cities facing similar challenges have adopted stricter and more decisive policies. Amsterdam, for example, has implemented measures to curb excessive tourism and protect the quality of life for its residents. The city has introduced a visitor cap, limiting the number of tourists to 20 million per year. In addition, it has proposed banning coffee shops from serving tourists, in an effort to reduce the influx of visitors attracted by Amsterdam’s reputation for legal cannabis consumption.

Amsterdam’s approach highlights the role of political will in shaping tourism policies. Unlike Venice, where regulations have often been weakened by economic pressures and conflicting interests, Amsterdam has prioritised the well-being of its residents and the long-term sustainability of its tourism industry. This comparison raises the question of whether Venice can adopt a more effective and proactive strategy to regulate tourism, ensuring that the city remains both a thriving cultural landmark and a liveable urban space.

#D. Safeguarding Venice’s future

#a) Protecting Venice from flooding

One of the most pressing threats to Venice’s survival is the increasing frequency and severity of flooding, exacerbated by rising sea levels and the sinking of the city. To combat this issue, the MOSE Project, a large-scale mechanical barrier system, was launched in 2003. This system consists of mobile gates designed to isolate the Venetian lagoon from the Adriatic Sea during periods of exceptionally high tides, known as acqua alta.

Despite significant delays and cost overruns, the project was first activated in 2020 and has since played a crucial role in reducing the impact of flooding. By preventing seawater from engulfing the city, MOSE aims to mitigate long-term damage to Venice’s historic buildings, streets, and infrastructure. However, concerns remain about the project’s sustainability, as its effectiveness may be challenged by the continued rise in global sea levels. Additionally, regular maintenance and operational costs pose financial burdens that the city must address to ensure its long-term functionality.

#b) Sustaining heritage through responsible tourism

While UNESCO World Heritage status has contributed to Venice’s global recognition and economic prosperity, it has also fuelled an unsustainable surge in tourism, which in turn threatens the very heritage that the designation seeks to protect. In fact, UNESCO has repeatedly expressed concerns about overtourism in Venice, even considering placing it on the list of endangered heritage sites.

Beyond Venice, similar challenges exist in developing countries, where cultural heritage is often at risk of disneylandisation and folklorisation. These processes occur when traditional customs, art, and performances are staged in a way that caters primarily to tourists rather than serving their original cultural purpose. In such cases, local traditions risk becoming superficial attractions rather than authentic representations of heritage, reducing cultural depth in favour of commercialisation.

A key factor in ensuring sustainable heritage preservation is securing adequate funding. The public sector plays a central role in financing conservation efforts, with national governments, UNESCO, and local authorities providing both direct funding and indirect support through tax incentives, grants, and heritage labels that attract tourists. In recent years, private sponsorship has also gained importance, with major corporations and philanthropists stepping in to fund restoration projects. A notable example is LVMH’s significant donation toward the reconstruction of Notre-Dame de Paris after the cathedral’s devastating fire in 2019. Similar private initiatives could provide additional resources for the protection of Venice’s cultural landmarks.

#c) Conclusive remarks

Venice illustrates the complex and often contradictory relationship between tourism and heritage. On one hand, tourism serves as an economic lifeline, generating jobs and investment that sustain the local economy. On the other hand, uncontrolled mass tourism poses significant threats to both the city’s cultural heritage and its fragile environment.

The key to Venice’s future lies in effective regulation, requiring strong political commitment and a long-term vision for sustainable tourism. Measures such as limiting tourist numbers, enforcing conservation policies, and diversifying the local economy will be crucial in ensuring that Venice remains both a thriving urban space and a well-preserved historical treasure. The challenge ahead is to strike a balance between economic benefits and heritage preservation, ensuring that Venice’s unique character and identity are safeguarded for future generations.