Introduction - 'Knowledge society', knowledge communities, actors and and modalities of knowledge circulation

Knowledge is the action through which one actively acquires knowledge to understand and explain the world.

#1. Knowledge and "Knowledge society"

#A. Implications of knowledge

Access to knowledge emerges as a major concern for States, serving as a means for them to assert their power on various fronts. Economically, it plays a role in generating growth and attracting investments, while geopolitically, it enables countries to project influence through soft and smart power mechanisms, such as the accumulation of patents.

However, access to knowledge also became a potential source of competition and tension, particularly evident in instances of industrial espionage. Moreover, it stands as a fundamental lever for development, as wealth creation is essential for advancements in areas like healthcare and education. Therefore, the pursuit of knowledge holds significant implications for both national agendas and global dynamics.

#B. "Knowledge society" and its limitations

The concept of a “knowledge society” refers to a new societal paradigm where knowledge is treated as a valuable resource for generating wealth. This notion was introduced by Peter Drucker, in The Age of discontinuity. Drucker is an American philosopher born in Austria and a professor of modern management. Drucker's ideas represented a departure from the Fordist model, which relegated workers to performing repetitive tasks without utilising their intelligence. Instead, Drucker emphasised the importance of educating and empowering workers to set goals and innovate. Students can become “human capital,” instead of “human resources.” Drucker advocated for businesses and governments to invest in innovation and research and development (R&D) to enhance profitability. This led to the emergence of the idea of a knowledge economy, in which economic development is contingent on access to information, technology, and education.

Knowledge society is not information society, but information is the condition of knowledge. Information society refers to the increased accessibility of information facilitated by information and communication technologies (ICTs) such as the internet and smartphones, fostering the emergence of a knowledge-based society. However, profound inequalities persist in access to information, and then knowledge, across territories and among individuals at all levels. Territories on the margins of globalisation, such as least developed countries (LDCs), face significant challenges, with nearly 10% of children in developing countries not attending school, more than half of whom are in sub-Saharan Africa. Moreover, economically disadvantaged populations within nations experience limited access to ICTs (there is digital divide) and educational opportunities, contributing to a lack of cultural access. In France, for example, one in four individuals struggles with digital illiteracy.

Furthermore, knowledge can be exploited for commercial purposes. The model developed by Drucker is a capitalist model.

#2. Building and sharing knowledge

#A. From learned societies to scientific communities

The history of science challenges the notion of a “scientific revolution” and the idea of a succession of “discoveries” by solitary geniuses. Before the 17th century, there were already gatherings of scholars, with rulers funding intellectuals to enhance their prestige.

For example, during ancient Roman times, there was Caius Maecenas, in the 1st century BC, who financed Horace and Virgil. Leonardo da Vinci was supported by François I in the 16th century.

The first universities emerged in the Middle Ages, initially in the Muslim world, such as in Fes, Morocco, in 859, and later in Europe, with institutions like Bologna in 1088, Oxford in 1167, and Paris in 1200.

#a) From modern science to global scientific research

For the history of science, “modern science” emerged with the founding of the first learned societies in Europe, starting from the 17th century. A learned society refers to associations of experts and amateurs who exchange knowledge. Science began to institutionalise with the establishment of these societies and universities, which were supported and regulated by the States. These societies facilitated exchanges among scientists within the same discipline and country, such as the Royal Society founded in 1660 in London, where Newton served as president.

There were even exchanges across Europe, evidenced by the correspondence networks during the Enlightenment in the 18th century. In the 19th century, universities also became centres for knowledge construction. With the rise of the Nation-State model, scientific research became a national concern. In the early 20th century, the first global scientific congresses emerged, leading to the standardisation of research methods and peer review processes before publication in scientific journals.

#b) Specialisation of researchers in the 20th century

In the 20th century, there was a growing specialisation among researchers. For instance, in the field of life sciences, researchers specialised in areas such as plant biology, genetics, and so forth.

Today, the scientific community, comprised of researchers in the same discipline who are connected and adhere to common methods, has become more independent of States. For example, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), whose conclusions exert pressure on governments, illustrates this independence.

#B. Circulation of knowledge: actors and modalities

Access to knowledge has long been primarily disseminated through schools and the media. Since the late 1990s, access to knowledge has been facilitated by the internet. For example, in 2021, Google indexed 130,000 trillion new web pages.

#a) Multiple actors involved in the circulation of knowledge

Today, the circulation of knowledge involves a multitude of actors from both public and private spheres. Public entities such as States play a pivotal role through educational institutions like schools and universities, research institutes, and libraries, all of which serve as channels for disseminating knowledge to the public. On the private side, transnational corporations (TNCs) are significant players, particularly in the field of innovation where knowledge is a key asset in global competition. These corporations often collaborate with researchers and academics within specialised clusters or technopoles to drive innovation forward.

Additionally, scientists, students, and amateurs actively contribute to the circulation of knowledge, both among themselves and through efforts in popularisation. Through mediums like media and the internet, including platforms such as Wikipedia and YouTube, they aim to make complex knowledge accessible to non-specialist audiences.

Furthermore, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and various associations also play important roles in disseminating knowledge, typically focusing on specific areas or communities of interest. Together, these diverse actors form a dynamic ecosystem for the circulation and democratisation of knowledge in contemporary society.

#b) A relative "democratisation"

However, the democratisation of knowledge facilitated by advancements such as the internet is not without limitations. It remains contingent upon several factors. Firstly, socio-economic disparities persist across various levels of society, impacting access to education and information. Additionally, geopolitical conflicts and cultural differences can impede the free exchange of knowledge across borders. Moreover, the quality and reliability of information disseminated online vary widely, raising concerns about the accuracy of accessible knowledge. Furthermore, there is a growing concern over the monopolisation of knowledge by tech giants like GAFAM, potentially leading to unequal access to information and the creation of information bubbles. Finally, the increasing privatisation of scientific articles by publishing groups poses challenges to open access and sharing of scholarly research, limiting the dissemination of knowledge to those who can afford access.