Section 2 - Knowledge as a political and geopolitical issue
The control and mastery of knowledge play a fundamental role in defining a nation's power. This knowledge forms the foundation of both hard and smart power.
- Technological mastery: A state's ability to develop and control technology directly impacts its military and economic power.
- Intelligence control: The ability to gather, analyse, and utilise intelligence is a key factor in diplomatic strength.
- Innovation leadership: Economic power is increasingly determined by a country's capacity to drive innovation and stay ahead in competitive industries. To achieve dominance in these areas, states employ two primary strategies:
- Educational policies: This includes investments in schools, universities, research and development, and the promotion of student mobility.
- External acquisition of knowledge: Countries may acquire expertise through technology transfers, attracting highly skilled individuals (brain drain), or even espionage.
Why does knowledge mastery enhance a state's power? The ability to control and generate knowledge enables a country to strengthen its military, economic, and diplomatic capabilities, ensuring its influence on the global stage.
#1. Espionage and state power: the role of Soviet and American intelligence during the Cold War
#A. Knowledge as both a strategic challenge and a pillar of geopolitical power: its purposes and evolution
#a) Knowledge for military purposes
The two World Wars were periods of major technological advancements, particularly in weaponry and medicine. One of the most significant developments was in weapons technology, with the creation of the atomic bomb fundamentally transforming modern warfare. This breakthrough not only reshaped military strategy but also altered global power dynamics, leading to the nuclear arms race during the Cold War.
Medical progress also advanced rapidly during this period. The development of penicillin in World War II greatly improved the treatment of wounded soldiers, reducing mortality rates and revolutionising battlefield medicine. These innovations underscored the crucial role of scientific research in supporting military efforts.
Beyond these direct applications, science itself became a weapon. Nations engaged in a “technological war”, competing to develop superior military technologies that could provide a decisive advantage over their adversaries. The push for innovation extended beyond warfare, as many military advancements later contributed to national power in peacetime. For example, the ARPANET, originally developed by the US military in 1969, laid the foundation for what would become the modern internet.
As scientific breakthroughs became increasingly valuable, they also became targets for espionage and knowledge theft. Intelligence operations sought to acquire and protect critical technological advancements. A notable case was Klaus Fuchs, a physicist who leaked atomic bomb secrets to the Soviet Union, accelerating their nuclear programme and intensifying Cold War tensions.
#b) Knowledge for geopolitical purposes
Understanding an adversary’s plans and secrets is a key geopolitical advantage. Nations achieve this through intelligence operations, which play a crucial role in both national security and international relations.
One of the primary methods of intelligence gathering is espionage, which involves acquiring classified information about an enemy’s strategies and capabilities. This can take various forms, including infiltrating foreign institutions, recruiting informants, and intercepting communications. By obtaining such intelligence, states can anticipate threats, counter military strategies, and gain leverage in diplomatic negotiations.
At the same time, protecting one’s own sensitive knowledge is just as important. This is the role of counterintelligence, which focuses on identifying and neutralising foreign espionage activities. Governments employ countermeasures such as surveillance, encryption, and counter-espionage operations to safeguard critical state secrets and prevent information leaks.
In this context, intelligence gathering serves both offensive and defensive functions, directly influencing global power dynamics. The effectiveness of a state’s intelligence capabilities can determine its strategic position on the world stage, shaping alliances, conflicts, and geopolitical stability.
#c) The structuring of intelligence agencies in the 20th century
In the 20th century, intelligence practices, which had existed for centuries, became formalised into structured government agencies. In the United Kingdom, the Secret Intelligence Service (SIS), commonly known as MI6, was established in 1909. During World War II, British intelligence proved highly effective, particularly in cryptography. Figures like Alan Turing played a crucial role in deciphering German submarine codes using the Enigma machine, which significantly contributed to the Allies' victory in the Battle of the Atlantic.
In the United States, intelligence services were initially fragmented across multiple agencies, including the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), a military intelligence organisation. To streamline operations, the US government established the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) in 1947, consolidating foreign intelligence efforts under one central body.
The Soviet Union also developed a sophisticated intelligence apparatus. Initially, intelligence activities were carried out by the Cheka, which later evolved into the NKVD. In 1954, the Soviet Union established the KGB, which handled both domestic and foreign intelligence while also functioning as a political police force to suppress opposition. Today, its main successor is the Federal Security Service (FSB).
#d) Methods of intelligence gathering: legal and illegal
Intelligence agencies employ a range of methods, both legal and illegal, to collect sensitive information. One of the most traditional and widely used forms is human intelligence (HUMINT). This involves the clandestine collection of information, often through espionage. Governments recruit agents within foreign administrations or intelligence services, sometimes “turning” them into double agents, commonly known as “moles”.
Alongside human intelligence, modern intelligence agencies increasingly rely on technical intelligence (TECHINT). This includes aerial reconnaissance, such as the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis, when US aerial photography revealed Soviet missile installations in Cuba. Other methods include the use of spy satellites, surveillance drones, and cyber-espionage to gather critical information.
Another increasingly significant intelligence method is open-source intelligence (OSINT). This refers to the collection and analysis of publicly available information from media sources, academic research, government publications, corporate reports, and social media platforms. OSINT allows intelligence agencies to monitor global events, track potential threats, and gain insights into foreign governments and organisations without engaging in covert espionage. However, its effectiveness is often challenged by issues such as misinformation, data manipulation, and information overload.
By combining HUMINT, TECHINT, and OSINT, intelligence agencies develop a more complete understanding of potential threats and geopolitical developments, allowing states to anticipate challenges and protect their strategic interests.
#e) Methods of knowledge protection
As intelligence gathering becomes more sophisticated, so too do efforts to protect sensitive information. The primary tool for safeguarding knowledge is encryption and cryptography. During World War II, the Germans relied on the Enigma machine to encode their communications, but British cryptographers successfully deciphered its codes, changing the course of the war.
Today, encryption technologies have evolved significantly. Governments and intelligence agencies use advanced cryptographic methods to secure classified information, prevent cyberattacks, and protect state secrets from foreign intelligence threats. The ongoing battle between encryption and decryption remains a central aspect of global intelligence operations.
#B. Soviet and American intelligence services during the Cold War
#a) US intelligence in the fight against the USSR and communism
The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), founded in 1947, became one of the most powerful and independent intelligence agencies in the world. Operating with limited oversight, it answered only to the President of the United States, the CIA was sometimes described as "a state within a state" within American democracy. While seen as a key weapon in the fight against Soviet influence, it was also highly controversial due to its illegal activities both abroad and within the US. One of its primary missions was to track and neutralise Soviet spies and communist sympathisers.
During the Cold War, the CIA conducted a secret war, engaging in espionage, counterintelligence, disinformation campaigns, and the elimination of political opponents. A notable example of counter-espionage was the execution of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg in 1953. Accused of passing atomic secrets to the Soviet Union, they were convicted of espionage and became the first civilians executed for such charges in the US.
Domestically, the fight against communism led to McCarthyism, also known as the “Red Scare” (1950–1953). This period was marked by a political witch hunt against suspected communist supporters, militants, and agents. Many public figures, intellectuals, and Hollywood actors were blacklisted or prosecuted without solid evidence.
Beyond espionage and counterintelligence, the CIA was also involved in political assassinations. The agency allegedly attempted to assassinate Cuban leader Fidel Castro 638 times, using methods such as poisoned cigars, exploding seashells, and hallucinogenic drugs (LSD) to discredit him on live television. Another example was the assassination of Che Guevara in Bolivia in 1967, as part of efforts to suppress communist revolutionary movements in Latin America.
The CIA also played a key role in regime changes, orchestrating coups against governments deemed hostile to US interests. In 1953, after Iran nationalised its oil industry, the CIA helped overthrow Prime Minister Mossadegh and install Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, securing Western control over Iranian oil resources.
In addition to direct interventions, the CIA provided financial and logistical support to anti-communist organisations worldwide. For example, it helped create and fund the Force Ouvrière union in France to counter the influence of the CGT, which was closely aligned with the Communist Party.
#b) Soviet intelligence services during the Cold War
The Soviet Union’s intelligence efforts were led by the KGB, which played a crucial role in both foreign espionage and domestic political control. Unlike the CIA, which operated within a democratic system, the KGB was directly linked to the Communist Party and had a powerful influence over both the Soviet government and its satellite states.
During the interwar period, the USSR had recruited a vast network of spies across Europe and the United States. Unlike the CIA, which relied on financial incentives, Soviet intelligence often recruited spies on ideological grounds. Many saw communism as a beacon of hope, making them more willing to betray their own governments. An example was the “Cambridge Five”, a group of five British double agents who were recruited during their university years in the 1930s and later infiltrated British counterintelligence, diplomacy, and finance at the highest levels.
Until the late 1960s, the KGB prioritised military intelligence, focusing on gathering information about Western nuclear and defence programmes. One of its most significant spies was Rudolf Abel, who led Soviet efforts to obtain classified US nuclear research. Abel was later captured and exchanged in 1962 for US pilot Francis Gary Powers, whose U-2 spy plane had been shot down over the USSR.
From the 1970s onwards, the KGB shifted its focus towards economic and industrial espionage. The Soviet Union, struggling with technological lag, sought to steal Western innovations to remain competitive in key industries.
One of the KGB’s greatest successes, however, was not foreign espionage but internal control. The agency played a central role in monitoring and suppressing dissent within the Eastern Bloc, ensuring that opposition to communist regimes remained weak. Intelligence agencies were established in every Soviet satellite state, creating an extensive surveillance network. In East Germany, the Stasi (Ministerium für Staatssicherheit), one of the most feared intelligence services, collected information on nearly half of the population, demonstrating the extreme measures used to maintain control.
By the end of the Cold War, the CIA and KGB had become two of the most powerful intelligence agencies in history, shaping the course of global conflicts and influencing political developments worldwide.
#C. Intelligence in the post-Cold War era: new technologies and targets
#a) The increasing role of digital technologies in intelligence
Since the end of the Cold War, intelligence operations have become increasingly reliant on advanced digital technologies. The rise of video surveillance, satellite and drone monitoring, financial transaction tracking, phone tapping, and internet surveillance has revolutionised the way intelligence agencies operate. These tools have allowed democracies to expand their intelligence capabilities while also raising concerns about privacy and civil liberties.
One of the most significant shifts in intelligence priorities has been its reorientation towards counterterrorism and economic security. Intelligence agencies now focus heavily on tracking and preventing terrorist activities while also protecting national industries from technological theft. Industrial espionage has become a major concern, as countries seek to safeguard corporate secrets and gain a competitive edge. A prominent example occurred in 2019, when the United States accused the Chinese government and Huawei of engaging in industrial espionage to the detriment of American telecommunications corporations.
#b) The dominance of US intelligence
Today, the United States possesses the most powerful intelligence network in the world, due to its technological superiority and vast resources. The military-industrial complex plays a crucial role in maintaining this dominance, with companies like Lockheed Martin developing advanced stealth fighter jets and other cutting-edge military technologies.
One of the most powerful intelligence tools at the US’s disposal is its global communications surveillance system. The ECHELON network, operated by the Five Eyes alliance (the US, UK, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand), allows for the interception of telephone and internet communications worldwide. This system, originally developed during the Cold War, has since expanded its reach and remains a critical tool for gathering intelligence on both foreign governments and private citizens.
#c) Mass surveillance in authoritarian regimes
While democracies use intelligence primarily for national security and economic protection, authoritarian regimes employ surveillance technologies for mass control. The Chinese government, for example, has developed an extensive "social credit system", which monitors and evaluates citizens’ behaviour using AI-powered surveillance, financial tracking, and internet monitoring. This system serves as a tool for political control, rewarding compliant behaviour while punishing dissent.
As intelligence operations continue to evolve, the balance between national security, technological advancement, and civil liberties remains a key issue for both democratic and authoritarian states.