Introduction - Forms of conflict and attempts at peace in today's world
War refers to an armed conflict between human groups or States.
Conflict represents an intermediate situation between peace and war, characterised by tensions that may not necessarily lead to combat, yet could escalate to war.
Peace denotes the absence or cessation of combat, often achieved through a peace treaty, armistice, or surrender.
#1. Typology of the nature of wars
#A. Inter-state war
An inter-state war is a conflict between two or more sovereign States. An example of an inter-state war is the Iran-Iraq War that occurred from 1980 to 1988.
#B. Intra-state war
An intra-state war, also known as a civil war, is a conflict within a single State involving the State's government and non-conventional actors challenging its authority. An example of an intra-state war is the Syrian Civil War, which has been ongoing since 2011, pitting the government against rebels seeking democracy.
They can involve non-conventional actors on both sides, sometimes supported by States on both sides, challenging each other's authority. An example of this type of conflict is the war between drug traffickers (cartels) in Mexico.
#C. Asymetric war
Asymmetric war occurs between actors of different natures, which can be intra-, inter-, or transnational.
In asymmetric war, the first scenario involves a State or coalition of States facing off against a significantly weaker State militarily, as seen in the First Gulf War (1991).
The second scenario involves States confronting unconventional actors, sometimes backed by other States, who employ non-conventional means, for example terrorist attacks in France in 2015.
#2. Typology of motivations and implications of wars
Wars can be motivated by various factors:
- Political agendas, such as the desire to seize power or resolve border disputes.
- Economic interests, like the appropriation of valuable resources such as energy and minerals, often fuel conflicts.
- Ideological tensions, such as nationalism, can also contribute to warfare, as seen in struggles for independence or dominance.
- Religious motivations, including armed proselytism or the propagation of religious fundamentalism, have historically played a significant role in many conflicts around the world.
#3. A diversity of actors in conflicts
| TYPE | ACTORS | CHARACTERISTICS | EXAMPLES |
|---|---|---|---|
| Conventional actors | States | UN member countries | United States, France, etc. |
| International organisations and coalitions | Intergovernmental organisations or military alliances | UN (Blue Helmets), NATO, alliance of countries around the USA | |
| Private Military Companies (PMC) | Private companies that lease their services to States to wage war on their behalf or alongside them. | 2004, Blackwater signs a contract with the CIA to track down Al-Qaeda operatives | |
| Non-conventional actors (asymmetric) | Rebel groups, insurgents, militias | Fighters not officially affiliated with a State, challenging control of a territory by a State or foreign occupying forces | FARC (Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia) |
| Often transnational terrorist groups | Groups resorting to violence for the purpose of domination | Al-Qaeda, ISIS | |
| Criminal groups | Groups resorting to violence for enrichment purposes | Pirates, Drug traffickers |
#4. A variety of conflict resolution methods
Conflicts may be resolved through various means.
One approach involves achieving victory through military superiority, with one party imposing its terms on the other.
Alternatively, negotiation becomes an option when the parties involved perceive the costs of continued conflict to be too high.
External intervention can resolve conflicts, such as facilitated by:
- The UN, which has become increasingly prevalent in conflict resolution efforts, often involving the deployment of peacekeeping forces like the Blue Helmets.
- NATO, playing a significant role in resolving conflicts, as seen in their intervention in the Yugoslav conflict.
- State mediation, exemplified by the USA's involvement in mediating the Israeli-Palestinian conflict through the Oslo Accords in 1995.
#5. Limitations of these typologies
Some conflicts exhibit multiple dimensions. For example, asymmetric war may concurrently involve both inter-state and intra-state elements.
The involvement of numerous actors in conflicts complicates their categorisation, frequently blurring distinct boundaries.
Resolving conflicts does not invariably result in sustained peace. Negative peace, characterised by an end to direct confrontations yet persisting tensions among involved parties, outweighs instances of positive peace, where tensions are entirely absent. Bertrand Badie captures this phenomenon as “the impotence of power”, highlighting the limitations of coercive force in achieving lasting peace.
Before 1945, the classification of conflicts followed a relatively straightforward pattern.
Since the conclusion of the Cold War, conflicts have become less frequent yet increasingly intricate.
We are witnessing the emergence of novel hybrid warfare, including cyberwarfare, marking a significant shift in the nature of contemporary conflicts.