Section 2 - Peacemaking challenges

In international relations, peace is the absence of war. Peacebuilding involves several steps:

  1. Halting the war (ceasefire, armistice, cessation of hostilities, surrender).
  2. Peacemaking:
    • Through Treaties (from the 17th century to 1919): negotiation, signature by representatives, ratification by States.
    • Through collective security guaranteed by international organisations (since 1919).
  3. Peacekeeping: mediation, prevention between former belligerents, reconstruction, and consolidation (demining, organising elections, etc.).

Until the 17th century, ending a war was often considered enough to establish peace. Treaties or marriages were sometimes used to “seal” the peace. However, there were several obstacles:

  • Peace was not implemented in reality, as there were difficulties in stopping the pillaging by warriors who were mercenaries and no longer paid after the ceasefire, needing to sustain themselves.
  • Temporary peace typically could serve as a pretext to rebuild forces. For example, there were 42 peace treaties during the Hundred Years' War.
  • Peace terms, unfavourable to the vanquished, frequently led to the resumption of war.

From the 17th century onward, there was the first development in Europe of an organised and enduring peace:

  • Peace was achieved through agreement between powers, with peace treaties during international congresses. The first congresses, such as the Treaties of Westphalia in 1648, marked a milestone.
  • Peace was maintained by the balance of powers, which established permanent armies to ensure their security, allowing for an “armed peace.”

This so-called Westphalian system lasted until 1914 and failed in 1919. In the 20th century, the failure of this system during the two world wars led to the birth of the idea of collective security: a global diplomacy would maintain “perpetual peace” through international organisations such as the League of Nations and later the United Nations.

#1. Peacemaking through treaties: the Treaties of Westphalia (1648)

#A. The context of Thirty Years' War

During the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), one of Europe's most devastating conflicts, the Habsburgs of Austria and Spain clashed with other European powers such as Denmark, Sweden, and France, alongside wars between States within the Holy Roman Empire.

The conflict initially stemmed from a local religious dispute, with Protestant princes in Bohemia rejecting the Catholic policies of the Habsburg emperors of Austria. However, it quickly escalated into a broader struggle for political dominance in Europe, leading to what some describe as a “civil war” across the continent.

The war was characterised by extreme violence, resulting in the deaths of 8 millions people, approximately 1.3% of the world population, and 20% of the European population. The toll was particularly severe in regions like Alsace, where an estimated 75% of the population perished.

The widespread devastation was exacerbated by the use of 1 million mercenaries and private armies, who engaged in looting and pillaging. Civilian populations suffered greatly from epidemics, such as the plague, as well as massacres, including attacks on refugees in German cities and pogroms targeting Jews and alleged witches.

#B. Negotiations and drafting of the Treaties of Westphalia (1648)

#a) Process of building an agreement between belligerents

The negotiations were lengthy, considering the new balance of power between the nations involved.

Representatives signed a document to formalise the peace agreement, with thousands of diplomats representing 156 States.

The agreements were then ratified by leaders, including sovereigns, governments, and parliaments, making them official.

#b) The Treaties

The Treaties of Westphalia marked the end of two major conflicts: the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) and the Eighty Years' War (1568-1648) between Spain and the Dutch Republic. As a result, there were several treaties:

  1. The Treaty of Münster was signed between Spain and the Dutch Republic.
  2. The Treaty of Münster was signed between the Holy Roman Empire and France.
  3. The Treaty of Osnabrück was signed between the Holy Roman Empire and Sweden.

#C. A difficult implementation of the Treaties

The implementation of the Treaties of Westphalia faced several challenges. There was difficulty in demobilising armies, and the war continued outside the Holy Roman Empire, such as the Franco-Spanish War, which lasted until 1659. Additionally, it took three years for the peace to be ratified by the States.

#D. The Westphalian system, a new diplomatic framework

#a) Short term alteration of balance of power

The weakening of the Holy Roman Empire resulted in the Emperor having only symbolic authority over a divided Germany, consisting of 350 States.

Spain's decline was evident in its recognition of the independence of the United Provinces, signalling the end of the aspiration for a “universal Catholic monarchy” by the Habsburgs.

This period also saw the ascendancy of French military and diplomatic prowess.

#b) Long term effects: a significant milestone in international relations

The aim was to prevent such wars from happening again by implementing non-punitive treaties that allowed the defeated parties to engage in negotiations. It also sought to establish the principle of the balance of power to prevent any single State from overpowering others.

Additionally, it pioneered the development of international laws of war by recognising the jus ad bellum, acknowledging war as an accepted form of inter-state relations. However, it emphasised the necessity for regulated violence, termed the jus in bello (Grotius, 1625).

The recognition of the principle of State sovereignty marked the birth of the modern State. Sovereignty entails that a State is acknowledged by other States as the sole legitimate authority over its territory and population.

Externally, sovereignty means that no authority is recognised above the State, such as the Emperor or the Pope, and each sovereign has full control within their territory, including matters of religion. States are considered equal to each other in terms of sovereignty. Internally, sovereignty means that no authority is recognised within the State, and the State has exclusive authority over its territory and population, including a monopoly on armed violence.

The Westphalian system, established after 1648, recognised the sovereignty of States and aimed to achieve a balance of power among them in Europe. It also marked the beginning of the development of international laws governing warfare.

#c) The first international peace congress

The Congress of Westphalia, which marked the first international peace congress, operated in Europe from 1648 to 1914. During this period, no European country sought to dominate others (except during the Napoleonic Wars), and imperialism shifted towards colonial conquests. However, it led to military alliances and an arms race, resulting in what was known as “armed peace.”

#E. Challenges in 19th and 20th century

#a) Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars

The dominance of France across Europe for a period of 15 years precipitated the demise of the balance of power. It culminated in the Congress of Vienna in 1815, which served as the foundation for the second iteration of the Westphalian system, reshaping the dynamics of international relations in Europe.

#b) Failure of the Westphalian system during the two world wars

Peace was no longer the outcome of a treaty aimed at achieving balance: it was the consequence of absolute victory, with the defeated subjected to the will of the victors without negotiation.

Examples abound: The Treaty of Versailles did not adhere to the Westphalian model. The defeated parties were not invited to negotiate, leading the Germans to perceive it immediately as a “diktat”.

World War I served as the precursor to World War II. Similarly, in 1945, Nazi Germany was defeated by the Allies without signing any treaty.

#2. Peacemaking through collective security: from the League of Nations to the UN under Kofi Annan

In the 20th century, the unparalleled violence of the two World Wars demonstrated the failure of the Westphalian system. This led to the search for a new diplomatic system based on collective security to guarantee “perpetual peace” (Kant). This principle led to the creation of the League of Nations in 1919, and later the United Nations in 1945.

Collective security represents another rupture in the history of international relations.

  • The security and peace of one State become the concern of all other States, promoting inter-state solidarity.

  • It is no longer about alternating between peace and war, but about peacekeeping at all costs.

  • All States undertake a joint action to prevent conflicts

  • This joint action depends on international organisations at regional and global levels.

    This signifies a shift from peace based on State sovereignty (the Westphalian system) to peace based on solidarity among States within inter-state organisations.

#A. The League of Nations (1919-1946): first international organisation of collective security

#a) Origins

The organisation was introduced at the Paris peace conferences, by President Woodrow Wilson, who had written Fourteen Points, a statement for peace. The Treaty of Versailles in 1919, and the small treaties each contained an article mentioning the peace organastion.

Its headquarters were located in Geneva, Switzerland. The League of Nations was the first international organisation aimed at establishing peace multilaterally.

#b) Principles, successes and failures

The League of Nations attempted to resolve disputes between States through diplomatic arbitration by the international community. The League of Nations Covenant demonstrated solidarity among States to preserve their sovereignty and peace.

Diplomatic arbitration was supposed to replace the balance of power between nations, serving as a mode of peaceful conflict resolution based on international law. War was now presented as the failure of politics rather than its continuation.

Despite some successes, settling certain conflicts through referendums and border disputes resolution, such as Silesia or the Aaland islands, the League faced significant challenges. These included the refusal of the United States to participate, the absence of a military force, and the requirement for unanimous decision-making, which often led to paralysis in the face of crises. Additionally, the League was too frequently bypassed by the Conference of Ambassadors.

The League of Nations proved powerless in preventing significant conflicts, such as the Japanese invasion of Chinese Manchuria in 1931, or the Italian invasion of Abyssinia in 1936, highlighting its limitations.

#B. The United Nations Organisation (since 1945): second international organisation of collective security

The United Nations was established with the signing of the Charter on June 26, 1945, in San Francisco. It was signed by 51 States, and today it comprises 193 member States. The headquarters of the United Nations is located in New York City.

#a) Organisation

The UN consists of several key bodies:

  1. The General Assembly, where each member State has one vote. It can only adopt recommendations.
  2. The Security Council, comprised of 15 members, which can adopt resolutions including economic sanctions and the deployment of peacekeeping forces. It includes five permanent members with veto power (USA, Russia, France, UK, and China), and ten other non-permanent members elected by the General Assembly for two-year terms.
  3. Various specialised agencies such as the World Health Organisation (WHO) and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), which focus on specific areas such as health and culture, respectively.

#b) Peacekeeping principles

The UN's primary goal is to maintain peace through collective security. It employs several means to achieve this:

  • Multilateralism: all States engage in a collective action to prevent conflicts, taking into account the positions of other States in international relations.
  • Security Council resolutions: these may include economic and diplomatic sanctions against aggressor States.
  • Deployment of peacekeeping forces, known as Blue Helmets, who are provided by member States. This is a significant change from the League of Nations, which lacked its own military.
  • Interventions by UN agencies to support peace processes and stability efforts around the world.

#c) Limitations of the UN

During the Cold War, the UN's actions were limited by the veto power of the two superpowers (USA, USSR) and by respect for State sovereignty as outlined in the Charter, which discourages interference. Consequently, there were few operations conducted. For instance, until 1971, the USSR used its veto power approximately 80 times, which is eight times more than all other permanent members combined.

The concept of the "right to intervene," or the ability to intervene in a State's territory without its consent, contradicts the principle of sovereignty.

Since 1991, there have been issues with representation. The UN is still subject to the interests of the major powers, which have the right to veto and often act unilaterally according to their interests. For example, the 2003 Gulf War was initiated by the USA without being prevented by the UN.

The dominance of the major powers diminishes the influence of emerging powers. Furthermore, five powerful nations can block a resolution in an organisation intended to be universal.

The UN lacks an effective mechanism to engage with irregular conflicts, such as those involving terrorist groups.

The UN, as a supranational organisation, is not tasked with global governance. It does not function as a world parliament, and its budget and decisions are dependent on member States.

#C. Other methods of peacekeeping outside of the UN

In addition to the United Nations, there exist alternative approaches to peacekeeping, including:

  • Arbitration by major powers: In certain conflicts, powerful nations may intervene and facilitate negotiations between conflicting parties. For example, the United States has historically played a mediating role in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, attempting to broker peace agreements and ceasefires.
  • Regional military qlliances: Regional alliances, such as the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), can also contribute to peacekeeping efforts. While primarily focused on defense against external threats, NATO has occasionally engaged in peacekeeping missions and crisis management operations within its member States and beyond.

These alternative mechanisms, while distinct from the United Nations, serve as additional tools for managing conflicts and maintaining peace in different regions of the world.

#D. The UN during the tenure of Secretary-General Kofi Annan (1997-2006): a period of renewal?

Born in 1938 in Ghana, Kofi Annan embarked on a long diplomatic career. He joined the United Nations in 1962 and became the 7th Secretary-General in 1997, serving for two terms.

#a) Context

Since the end of the Cold War, the UN was not paralysed by superpowers anymore and could be more efficient. The 1990s saw the rise of new types of conflicts, especially intra-state conflicts, which demanded unprecedented tools.

Kofi Annan, who served in Peacekeeping Operations from 1992 to 1996, was deeply affected by two UN missions that failed to prevent genocides:

  • The Rwandan genocide (1994), characterised by the genocide of Tutsis by Hutus.
  • Ethnic cleansing in Bosnia (1995), which witnessed the genocide of Bosniaks by Serbs in Srebrenica.

#b) Making the UN more effective

Kofi Annan aimed to make the UN more effective by:

  • Increasing the number of peacekeepers from 20,000 to 90,000 and the frequency of interventions, for example, in East Timor.
  • Diversifying operations:
    • Peacekeeping involved maintaining peace and preventing wars, such as deploying troops to intervene between belligerents and enforce ceasefires.
    • Peacemaking focused on restoring peace, like mediating to facilitate negotiations between warring parties.
    • Peace enforcement entailed imposing peace, which may involve deploying soldiers with the consent of the security council.
    • Peacebuilding involveed post-war reconstruction and peace consolidation efforts, such as demining and organising elections.

#c) Promoting intervention for humanitarian reasons

When a State fails to protect its population, it becomes the responsibility of the UN to intervene, prioritising the defense of individuals' rights over that of States, particularly in intra-state conflicts.

In 2005, this principle was formalised as the Responsibility to Protect, or R2P, signifying UN intervention to safeguard civilians, even against sovereign States.

#d) Limitations of the R2P

Today, the concept of Responsibility to Protect is being questioned due to several reasons. Firstly, it is perceived as unequal because only major powers have the authority to decide, organise, and finance such interventions. Secondly, it is seen as having a variable application, as many dictators are still considered acceptable when they control valuable resources like oil. Additionally, doubts have been raised about the neutrality of humanitarian actions, with concerns that opportunistic motives, such as economic or political interests, may underlie these interventions.

#e) A call for impartial international justice

In response to these challenges, there is a call for the transformation of the right of interference into more impartial norms, particularly in the realm of international justice. This has led to the establishment of two tribunals, one in 1993 for the former Yugoslavia and another in 1994 for Rwanda, following the model of the Nuremberg Tribunals which prosecuted German war criminals after World War II. Additionally, the creation of the International Criminal Court (ICC) in 1998, based in The Hague, aims to address these issues on a permanent basis by prosecuting the most serious crimes such as war crimes and genocide.

However, despite these efforts, there are still limitations and criticisms. Many countries, including Russia and the USA, have not signed the ICC treaty, which affects its global reach and effectiveness. Furthermore, there are allegations that the ICC disproportionately targets non-Western leaders, leading to concerns about its impartiality and legitimacy.